# Nickel Hydroxide Market

> Nickel Hydroxide Market Research Report Information By Product Type (Battery-Grade Nickel Hydroxide, Industrial-Grade Nickel Hydroxide, Cobalt-Coated Nickel Hydroxide, High-Density Nickel Hydroxide, and Other Product Types), By Purity (Battery Grade (99% and Above) and Industrial Grade (Below 99%)), By Form (Powder, Granules, Spherical, and Other Forms), and By Application (Batteries, Electroplating, Catalysts, Ceramics and Pigments, Chemical Intermediates, and Other Applications) – Forecast Till 2035.

- **Forecast Period:** 2026-2035
- **CAGR:** 5.35%
- **2025:** USD 2.71 Billion
- **2035:** USD 4.56 Billion
- **Key Players:** Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd., Tanaka Chemical Corporation, GEM Co., Ltd., Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt Co., Ltd., Umicore, Jinchuan Group, Nornickel, BASF SE

**Report ID:** MRFR/CnM/0548-CR · **Pages:** 110 · **Author:** Priya Nagrale · **Last Updated:** October 15, 2026

**URL:** https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/nickel-hydroxide-market-1054

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## Market Summary

As per Market Research Future analysis, the Nickel Hydroxide Market Size was estimated at 2.13 USD Billion in 2024. The Nickel Hydroxide industry is projected to grow from 2.242 USD Billion in 2025 to 3.744 USD Billion by 2035, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.26% during the forecast period 2025 - 2035

## Market Drivers

## Driver Impact Analysis

| Driver | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Hybrid Vehicle NiMH Battery Demand | +1.2% | Japan, China, North America | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [12] |
| Nickel-Rich Cathode Precursor Expansion | +1.0% | Asia Pacific, Europe | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [1][2] |
| Supply Chain Localization Incentives | +0.7% | North America, Europe, India | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [6][7][22] |
| Indonesian Hydrometallurgical Capacity | +0.6% | Asia Pacific | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [3][20] |
| Alkaline Electrolyzer and Catalyst Adoption | +0.5% | Europe, China, Middle East | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [25] |
| Electroplating and Surface Finishing Demand | +0.4% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [10] |

### Hybrid Vehicle NiMH Battery Demand

Full hybrids remain the largest single outlet for battery-grade Ni(OH)₂, because NiMH packs tolerate heat and deep cycling at low cost. Toyota sold more than 4 million electrified vehicles in 2024, most of them hybrids using NiMH or small lithium-ion packs [12]. Each NiMH hybrid pack consumes several kilograms of positive-electrode material. Hybrid share gains in the US, Japan and China, partly a hedge against slower battery-electric adoption, give producers a durable volume floor.

### Nickel-Rich Cathode Precursor Expansion

High-nickel NMC and NCA cathodes begin as co-precipitated hydroxide precursors, and their demand tracks electric vehicle growth. The IEA reports that EV battery demand surpassed 750 GWh in 2023 and continued rising in 2024 [1]. Its critical minerals outlook projects nickel demand for batteries roughly doubling by 2030 under stated policies [2]. Producers with co-precipitation know-how are positioned to serve both NiMH and precursor buyers from shared assets.

### Supply Chain Localization Incentives

Industrial policy is redirecting procurement. US Treasury final rules issued in May 2024 bar clean vehicle credits for batteries containing critical minerals from foreign entities of concern [6]. The DOE added roughly USD 3 billion for 25 battery projects in September 2024 [7]. India's production-linked incentive scheme allocates INR 18,100 crore for 50 GWh of advanced chemistry cell capacity [22]. Each program favors domestic or allied [chemical intermediates](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/chemical-intermediate-market-1925).

### Indonesian Hydrometallurgical Capacity

Indonesia produced roughly 60% of the world's mined nickel in 2024, according to USGS [3]. Its ore export ban, enforced since 2020 [20], has channeled laterite into high-pressure acid leach plants producing mixed hydroxide precipitate. This intermediate lowers the cost base for refined hydroxide grades in China and Korea. It also compresses conversion margins for producers relying on sulfide concentrates elsewhere.

### Alkaline Electrolyzer and Catalyst Adoption

Nickel-based electrodes and catalysts dominate alkaline water electrolysis. The IEA's Global Hydrogen Review 2024 counted about 1.4 GW of installed electrolyzer capacity at end-2023, with roughly 20 GW having reached final investment decision [25]. Catalyst-grade material carries tight morphology specifications and premium pricing. That combination makes this small application disproportionately valuable to specialty producers.

### Electroplating and Surface Finishing Demand

Electroplating consumes industrial grades as a nickel source and pH buffer in plating baths. The Nickel Institute notes that plating serves automotive trim, connectors, fasteners and electronics hardware worldwide [10]. Demand grows broadly with manufacturing output rather than with battery cycles. This steadiness offsets some of the volatility inherent in battery procurement and keeps industrial lines utilized.

## Restraints

## Restraints Impact Analysis

Restraint impacts are directional estimates of downward pressure on growth. They overlap with each other and with the drivers above, so they are not additive.

| Restraint | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Nickel Price Volatility | -0.8% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [21][24] |
| LFP Chemistry Substitution | -0.9% | China, Europe, North America | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [1][11] |
| Lithium-Ion Displacement of NiMH in Hybrids | -0.5% | Japan, Global | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [12] |
| Occupational and Chemical Classification Rules | -0.4% | Europe, North America | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [8] |
| ESG Scrutiny of Laterite Processing | -0.3% | Asia Pacific, Europe | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [2] |

### Nickel Price Volatility

Hydroxide contracts typically reference LME nickel, so price swings move revenue directly. Nickel briefly exceeded USD 100,000 per tonne in March 2022 before the LME suspended trading [24], then fell below USD 17,000 per tonne during 2024 as Indonesian supply surged [21]. Such swings complicate inventory valuation and discourage long-term capacity commitments.

### LFP Chemistry Substitution

Lithium iron phosphate cells contain no nickel and dominate China's mass-market EVs. The IEA estimates LFP supplied around 40% of global EV battery demand in 2023 [1]. Pack prices fell 20% to USD 115 per kWh in 2024, per BloombergNEF [11], widening LFP's cost advantage. Every share point LFP gains removes potential precursor demand.

### Lithium-Ion Displacement of NiMH in Hybrids

To reduce weight and enhance regenerative capture, automakers are progressively installing tiny lithium-ion packs in hybrid vehicles. Both chemistries are currently used in Toyota's hybrid portfolio [12]. The largest battery-grade outlet would be undermined by a quicker transition on high-volume platforms. The shift is gradual rather than sudden because NiMH maintains its cost and durability advantages.

### Occupational and Chemical Classification Rules

Based on the harmonized EU classification, nickel dihydroxide is a Category 1A carcinogen by inhalation and a Category 1B reproductive toxicant [8]. For soluble nickel compounds, US OSHA establishes a permitted exposure limit of 1 mg/m³. For smaller producers, compliance necessitates enclosed handling, dust control, and worker monitoring, which raises operational costs.

### ESG Scrutiny of Laterite Processing

Indonesian HPAL plants face scrutiny over tailings disposal, deforestation and captive coal power. The IEA flags emissions intensity of laterite routes as a growing procurement concern for Western automakers [2]. Buyers subject to due-diligence obligations under the EU Battery Regulation [4] may pay premiums or delay qualification of lower-cost material.

## Opportunities

## Nickel Hydroxide Market Opportunities

### Recycling-Derived Battery-Grade Feed

The EU Battery Regulation requires new batteries to contain at least 6% recycled nickel from 2031 and 15% from 2036 [4]. Hydrometallurgical recyclers converting black mass into hydroxide intermediates gain a regulated outlet with premium pricing. Producers who partner with recyclers for tolling can secure compliant feed without new mining exposure.

### Allied Supply Chains in North America

There is a disconnect between the capability of US cells and the supply of compatible precursors due to foreign entity of concern regulations [6]. Through joint ventures and offtakes with US gigafactories, producers in Korea, Japan, and Canada can fill it. North America's growth lead is maintained by DOE funds [7], which lower capital risk for domestic conversion plants.

### Emerging Market Capacity in India and Indonesia

India's cell PLI program [22] and Indonesia's downstream processing policy [20] are pulling precursor and refining investment into both countries. India currently imports nearly all battery chemicals, leaving a sizeable localization gap. Early suppliers that qualify with domestic cell makers can lock in multi-year contracts.

### Traceability Data and Material Passport Services

The EU Battery Passport becomes mandatory for EV and industrial batteries from February 2027 [4]. Producers that can deliver verified origin, carbon footprint and recycled-content data per lot can monetize that data through premium contracts or certification services. This shifts competition from price per tonne toward data-backed assurance.

### Specialty Catalyst and Electrolyzer Grades

Nickel catalysts with regulated surface area and shape are required for alkaline and anion-exchange [electrolyzers](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/electrolyzers-market-12343) [25]. Providing these grades creates a higher-margin market that is less vulnerable to EV cycles, frequently through co-development with electrolyzer makers.

## Future Outlook

## Nickel Hydroxide Market Future Outlook

### Hybrid Resurgence Within the Electrification Cycle

The IEA expects EV sales to exceed 20 million units in 2025 [1], yet hybrids are capturing buyers wary of charging infrastructure. This dual track supports both NiMH grades and lithium-ion precursors, sustaining the Nickel Hydroxide Market through 2035 even if battery-electric adoption slows in some regions.

### Circular Supply From Recycling

Recycled nickel will become a structural input as EU mandates [4] take effect in 2031 and 2036. Hydroxide routes suit recycled leach liquors, positioning recyclers as producers. By the early 2030s, recycled feed could become a meaningful share of European battery-grade supply.

### Traceability as a Commercial Requirement

Battery passports from 2027 [4] and US sourcing regulations [6] will include origin information in each transaction. Undocumented supplies will trade at a discount, but producers with digital lot monitoring and confirmed carbon footprints will qualify more quickly.

### Hydrogen and Catalytic Applications

If proposed projects move forward, electrolyzer usage could increase several times this decade [25]. Although catalyst grades still make up a small portion of tonnage, companies exposed to battery cycles can strategically diversify their operations thanks to their growth and profit margins.

## Segment Insights

## Nickel Hydroxide Market Segmentation

### By Product Type

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Battery-Grade Nickel Hydroxide | 58.0% share | NiMH hybrids and cathode precursor supply |
| Industrial-Grade Nickel Hydroxide | USD 0.57 Billion | Electroplating, pigments and chemical synthesis |
| Cobalt-Coated Nickel Hydroxide | 7.1% CAGR | Cycle stability in high-performance electrodes |
| High-Density Nickel Hydroxide | 6.2% CAGR | Energy density and slurry performance |
| Other Product Types | 4.5% share | Specialty and research formulations |

Within the Nickel Hydroxide Market, Battery-Grade Nickel Hydroxide dominates because cell makers demand tight impurity and particle-size control. Cobalt-Coated Nickel Hydroxide grows fastest, since a cobalt oxyhydroxide surface layer improves conductivity and high-temperature charge acceptance in hybrid packs. High-Density Nickel Hydroxide gains from rising energy targets. Industrial-Grade Nickel Hydroxide stays relevant in plating but carries lower pricing power, while Other Product Types serve laboratory and specialty niches.

### By Purity

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Battery Grade (99% and Above) | 69.8% share | Strict impurity limits in cell production |
| Industrial Grade (Below 99%) | USD 0.82 Billion | Plating, ceramics and commodity chemicals |

Purity now separates commercial tiers in the Nickel Hydroxide Market. Battery Grade (99% and Above) leads and is also the faster-growing grade, because trace iron, zinc and sulfate degrade cell capacity and cycle life. Industrial Grade (Below 99%) retains a solid demand base in electroplating, ceramics and pigments, where cost matters more than trace contaminants. The gap rewards producers with proven purification and consistent lot-to-lot quality.

### By Form

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Powder | 53.5% share | Compatibility with established processing lines |
| Granules | USD 0.38 Billion | Catalyst supports and low-dust handling |
| Spherical | 6.3% CAGR | Higher tap density and uniform electrode loading |
| Other Forms | 9.6% share | Pastes, slurries and custom morphologies |

Form choice in the Nickel Hydroxide Market reflects processing legacy and performance targets. Powder leads because existing industrial and battery equipment is built around it. Spherical grows fastest, as controlled co-precipitation produces particles that pack densely and coat evenly, lifting electrode energy density. Granules suit catalyst supports and dust-sensitive operations, while Other Forms serve custom applications. Process improvements are narrowing the cost premium for spherical material.

### By Application

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Batteries | 62.0% share | Hybrid vehicles, industrial backup and precursors |
| Electroplating | USD 0.43 Billion | Automotive, electronics and hardware finishing |
| Catalysts | 6.9% CAGR | Alkaline electrolyzers and hydrogenation |
| Ceramics and Pigments | 6.8% share | Colorants and glazes |
| Chemical Intermediates | USD 0.19 Billion | Feedstock for other nickel salts |
| Other Applications | 3.1% share | Research and niche industrial uses |

Batteries remain the core of the Nickel Hydroxide Market, absorbing most battery-grade output through hybrid packs and precursor routes. Catalysts grow fastest as hydrogen electrolyzer projects specify nickel electrodes with controlled surface area. Electroplating provides steady, GDP-linked volume. Ceramics and Pigments and Chemical Intermediates sustain industrial-grade demand, while Other Applications cover research and specialty uses.

## Regional Market Share Analysis

## Regional Market Share Analysis

| Region | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Investment Themes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| North America | 6.4% CAGR | IRA-compliant precursor supply, DOE-funded processing |
| Europe | 17.0% share | Recycled content, battery passport, hybrid fleets |
| Asia Pacific | 61.5% share | Precursor scale, NiMH hybrids, Indonesian intermediates |
| South America | USD 0.10 Billion | Plating, ceramics, emerging battery assembly |
| Middle East & Africa | 3.0% share | Electrolyzer projects, mining-linked refining |
| Total | USD 2.71 Billion | – |

The Nickel Hydroxide Market remains concentrated in Asia Pacific, but policy-driven investment is reshaping growth rates in North America and Europe.

### North America

| Country | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| United States | 82% share of region | Hybrid sales, IRA sourcing rules, gigafactory build-out |
| Canada | 6.0% CAGR | Integrated nickel mining and refining in Ontario and Quebec |

North America leads growth in the Nickel Hydroxide Market as policy forces cell makers to source compliant intermediates. US hybrid sales reached record levels in 2024, sustaining NiMH demand, while DOE grants [7] fund new conversion capacity. Canada's sulfide nickel deposits and its free-trade status under IRA rules [6] make it the logical partner for precursor investments targeting US plants.

### Europe

| Country | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Germany | 27% share of region | Automotive plating and cell manufacturing |
| United Kingdom | USD 0.05 Billion | Hybrid fleet replacement and specialty chemicals |
| France | 4.6% CAGR | Gigafactory clusters in the north |
| Italy | 11% share of region | Electroplating and ceramics |
| Spain | USD 0.03 Billion | Automotive assembly and pigments |
| Russia | 12% share of region | Domestic nickel refining base |
| Rest of Europe | 18% share of region | Nordic and Central European battery projects |

Europe's share is underpinned by regulation more than raw volume. The EU Battery Regulation [4] sets recycled-content and due-diligence requirements, while the Critical Raw Materials Act [5] targets 40% domestic processing of strategic raw materials by 2030. Germany anchors plating demand, and [Umicore](https://www.umicore.com/en/markets-products/automotive-mobility/battery-materials/cobalt-nickel-precursors/)'s European precursor footprint [14] provides regional supply. Sanctions continue to limit Russian material flows into EU buyers.

### Asia Pacific

| Country | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| China | 58% share of region | Precursor and cathode manufacturing scale |
| Japan | 19% share of region | NiMH hybrid battery supply chain |
| South Korea | 5.9% CAGR | High-nickel cathode producers |
| India | 7.4% CAGR | Cell PLI scheme and electronics manufacturing |
| Rest of Asia Pacific | USD 0.17 Billion | Indonesian intermediates and processing |

Asia Pacific controls the bulk of the Nickel Hydroxide Market through vertically integrated chains. Chinese producers such as GEM [16] and Huayou [17] combine Indonesian feed with domestic precursor lines. Japan's Sumitomo Metal Mining [13] and Tanaka Chemical [15] serve hybrid battery makers. India is the fastest-growing country, backed by INR 18,100 crore in cell incentives [22].

### South America

| Country | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Brazil | 64% share of region | Nickel mining, plating and automotive production |
| Argentina | 5.1% CAGR | Battery assembly linked to lithium projects |
| Rest of South America | 21% share of region | Industrial coatings and ceramics |

South America is a modest but stable region driven by industrial applications. Brazil hosts nickel operations and a large automotive plating base, while Argentina's lithium-triangle investments are attracting early battery assembly interest. Demand remains weighted toward industrial grades, with battery-grade imports largely sourced from Asia.

### Middle East & Africa

| Country | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Saudi Arabia | 6.1% CAGR | Green hydrogen and electrolyzer projects |
| United Arab Emirates | 18% share of region | Industrial trading and plating hubs |
| South Africa | 34% share of region | Platinum-group metal refining by-product nickel |
| Rest of Middle East & Africa | USD 0.03 Billion | Mining-linked processing |

Middle East & Africa holds a small share but offers catalyst upside. Saudi Arabia's large-scale green hydrogen projects require alkaline electrolyzers and nickel catalysts [25]. South Africa recovers nickel as a by-product of platinum-group metal refining, supplying regional industrial demand.

## Competitive Benchmarking

## Competitive Benchmarking

The Nickel Hydroxide Market is moderately concentrated, with an estimated Herfindahl-Hirschman Index of roughly 1,100–1,300. The top five producers hold an estimated 50–58% of revenue, led by Japanese battery-grade specialists and Chinese integrated groups. Industrial grades are more fragmented, with numerous regional chemical suppliers competing on price. Competitive advantage rests on customer qualification, feed security and purification capability.

| Company | Est. Revenue Share Range | Key Offerings for Nickel Hydroxide Market | Strategic Positioning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd. | ~12–16% | Battery-grade and cobalt-coated grades for NiMH | Integrated mine-to-material supplier to hybrid makers |
| Tanaka Chemical Corporation | ~9–13% | Spherical and high-density battery grades | Long-standing NiMH specialist |
| GEM Co., Ltd. | ~8–12% | Precursors from recycled and Indonesian feed | Recycling-led scale in China |
| Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt Co., Ltd. | ~7–11% | Hydroxide intermediates and precursors | Indonesian HPAL integration |
| Umicore | ~6–9% | Precursors and specialty nickel chemicals | European footprint and recycling |
| Jinchuan Group | ~5–8% | Industrial and battery grades | State-backed nickel producer |
| Nornickel | ~4–7% | Refined nickel and chemical feed | Low-cost sulfide resource base |
| BASF SE | ~3–6% | Cathode precursors and catalysts | Cathode materials and catalyst expertise |
| Kansai Catalyst Co., Ltd. | ~2–4% | Catalyst-grade materials | Specialty catalyst focus |
| Henan Kelong New Energy Co., Ltd. | ~2–4% | Spherical battery grades | Cost-competitive Chinese supplier |
| American Elements | ~1–3% | High-purity research grades | Specialty and laboratory supply |

## Recent News & Developments

## Recent News & Developments

- Ford, PT Vale and Huayou (March 2023): Announced the Pomalaa HPAL project in Indonesia, linking an automaker directly to hydroxide intermediate supply [17]
- Harita Nickel (April 2023): Listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange to fund HPAL expansion producing mixed hydroxide precipitate [20]
- European Union (August 2023): Battery Regulation 2023/1542 entered into force, setting recycled-nickel targets and battery passport requirements [4]
- US Treasury (May 2024): Finalized foreign entity of concern rules for the clean vehicle credit, reshaping precursor sourcing [6]
- European Union (May 2024): Critical Raw Materials Act entered into force, targeting domestic processing capacity [5]
- BHP (July 2024): Announced suspension of Western Australia Nickel operations from October 2024, citing oversupply and low prices [19]
- US Department of Energy (September 2024): Announced about USD 3 billion for 25 battery materials and manufacturing projects [7]

## Report Scope

| Parameter | Details |
| --- | --- |
| Market Scope | Covers battery-grade, industrial-grade, cobalt-coated and high-density nickel hydroxide in powder, granule and spherical forms for batteries, electroplating, catalysts, ceramics and pigments, and chemical intermediates |
| Study Period | 2021–2035 |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Historical Data | 2021–2024 |
| Forecast Period | 2026–2035 |
| Market Size in 2025 | USD 2.71 Billion |
| Market Size in 2035 | USD 4.56 Billion |
| CAGR (2026–2035) | 5.35% |
| Fastest Growing Segments | Cobalt-Coated Nickel Hydroxide (7.1% CAGR); Catalysts (6.9% CAGR); Spherical (6.3% CAGR); High-Density Nickel Hydroxide (6.2% CAGR) |
| Regions Covered | North America, Europe, South America, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa and ROW |
| Companies Profiled | Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd., Tanaka Chemical Corporation, GEM Co., Ltd., Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt Co., Ltd., Umicore, Jinchuan Group, Nornickel, BASF SE, Kansai Catalyst Co., Ltd., Henan Kelong New Energy Co., Ltd., American Elements |
| Valuation Currency | USD Billion |
| Methodology | 350+ primary expert interviews; bottom-up market sizing; top-down validation; data triangulation; scenario-based forecasting; real-time project tracking |

## Frequently Asked Questions

**Q: How should buyers qualify suppliers in the Nickel Hydroxide Market?**
A: Request lot-level data on iron, zinc, cobalt and sulfate impurities, plus tap density and particle-size distribution. Battery qualification often takes 6–18 months, so dual-sourcing early limits line-stoppage risk.

**Q: How does mixed hydroxide precipitate differ from refined grades in the Nickel Hydroxide Market?**
A: Mixed hydroxide precipitate is an intermediate containing roughly 35–40% nickel plus cobalt and impurities, sold to refiners. Refined grades are finished chemicals specified for direct use in cells, plating baths or catalysts [3].

**Q: How are supply contracts usually priced?**
A: Most contracts reference LME nickel plus a conversion premium or payable percentage. Battery grades favor long-term offtakes with quarterly resets, while industrial grades trade more often on spot terms [24].

**Q: What shipping and handling rules apply?**
A: Powder is often shipped as UN 3077, an environmentally hazardous solid in Class 9. Facilities also need dust-controlled handling because of its inhalation hazard classification [8].

**Q: Where can new entrants compete in the Nickel Hydroxide Market?**
A: Recyclers converting black mass are the most credible entrants because they bypass mining. Customer qualification and capital for co-precipitation lines remain the main barriers.

**Q: Can NiMH chemistry compete in stationary storage?**
A: NiMH tolerates wide temperatures and electrical abuse, suiting telecom, rail and safety-critical backup. Its higher cost per kWh than LFP confines it to niche roles [11].

**Q: Which testing standards apply to battery-grade material?**
A: IEC 61951-2 governs sealed portable NiMH cells, so material is validated through cell-level capacity and cycle tests. Chemical specifications follow supplier-buyer agreements rather than one global material standard.


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