# Gabon Power Market

> Gabon Power Market Research Report By Sector (Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution), By Power Generation (Hydropower, Natural Gas, Others) - Forecast to 2035

- **Forecast Period:** 2026-2035
- **CAGR:** 3.6%
- **2025:** USD 612.4 Million
- **2035:** USD 872.2 Million
- **Key Players:** SEEG, Eranove SA, Sinohydro (Power Construction Corporation of China), Engie SA, TBEA Co. Ltd, Genser Energy Holdings Inc., Asonga, Perenco

**Report ID:** MRFR/EnP/33175-HCR · **Pages:** 100 · **Author:** Chitranshi Jaiswal · **Last Updated:** November 12, 2026

**URL:** https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/gabon-power-market-35042

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## Market Summary

## Gabon Power Market Summary

The Gabon Power Market was valued at USD 612.4 Million in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 634.4 Million in 2026, rising to USD 872.2 Million by 2035 at a CAGR of 3.6% over 2026–2035. Two catalysts anchor this trajectory. The 35 MW Kinguélé Aval run-of-river plant, backed by African Development Bank financing, marks the country's first large privately developed hydro concession [4][5]. Alongside it, the 73 MW Ngoulmendjim and 15 MW Dibwangui projects extend a pipeline that the government has repeatedly prioritised to end chronic load shedding in Greater Libreville [6].

A structural shift is now underway. Gabon still leans on ageing diesel and gas-fired units, many commissioned before 2000, to cover peak demand, and those units suffer frequent outages and high fuel costs [7]. [Hydropower](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/hydropower-market-4368) development is displacing that legacy fleet, supported by a national target under the Plan Stratégique Gabon Émergent to raise hydro's share of supply to about 80%. Grid operators are also replacing manual dispatch with SCADA-based control and rolling out prepaid metering to cut commercial losses.

Geographically, the Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué zone dominates with a 46.8% share, driven by the Libreville–Owendo load centre. Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo is the fastest-growing zone at a 5.1% CAGR, lifted by mining and rural connection programmes, while Haut-Ogooué and Ogooué-Lolo ranks second on the back of manganese processing around Moanda. Over the coming decade, the pace of hydro commissioning and grid interconnection will decide how quickly supply catches up with suppressed demand.

## Key Report Takeaways

### • By Sector

- [Power Generation](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/power-generation-market-67587) holds a 64.5% share of the Gabon Power Market in 2025, reflecting capital-heavy hydro and thermal assets.
- Transmission and Distribution is the fastest-growing sector at a 4.2% CAGR, as new 225 kV corridors link isolated networks.

### • By Power Generation

- Hydropower accounts for a 48.6% share of generation value, anchored by Grand Poubara, Kinguélé and Tchimbélé.
- Natural Gas generation is valued at USD 135.1 Million in 2025, concentrated around Port-Gentil and Owendo.
- Others, covering solar PV and oil-fired units, expands fastest within the Gabon Power Market at a 5.3% CAGR.

### • By Region

- Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué leads with a 46.8% share, centred on the capital's grid.
- Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo posts the highest growth at a 5.1% CAGR.
- Haut-Ogooué and Ogooué-Lolo is valued at USD 112.7 Million, supported by mining loads.

## Market Size and Forecast (2021–2035)

Market Research Future sized the Gabon Power Market by combining utility revenue disclosures, installed capacity records, regulator tariff data and project-level capital expenditure, then validating totals against multilateral lender appraisals and national energy statistics [3][7][21]. Historical values capture the post-pandemic rebound and the 2023 supply crisis, while forecast values reflect the commissioning schedule of committed hydro and grid projects.

## Market Drivers

## Driver Impact Analysis

| Driver | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Hydro capacity pipeline | +0.9% | Estuaire, Ngounié, Moyen-Ogooué | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [4][6] |
| Urban demand growth in Greater Libreville | +0.7% | Estuaire | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [3][7] |
| Grid rehabilitation and interconnection | +0.6% | National | Long-term (≥4 yr) |   |
| Private capital and PPP frameworks | +0.5% | National | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [5] |
| Mining and industrial load | +0.5% | Haut-Ogooué, Ogooué-Ivindo | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [11] |
| Gas-to-power from associated gas | +0.3% | Ogooué-Maritime | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [23] |

### Hydro Capacity Pipeline

Although installed hydro capacity is close to 330 MW, Gabon's hydro resource is thought to have a technical potential of about 6,000 MW [2]. The model for privately funded concessions is the Kinguň Aval plant, which is supported by the AfDB and has a project cost of approximately EUR 180 million [4]. The Ngoulmendjim and Dibwangui projects by Eranove and Asonga add a further 88 MW [6]. Every plant that is put into service reduces the average cost of generation and releases fuel for export, increasing the national power system's economic worth.

### Urban Demand Growth in Greater Libreville

Gabon has one of the greatest rates of urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa, with about 90% of its people living in cities [3]. Over half of the country's electricity is consumed in Greater Libreville, which includes Owendo and Akanda [7]. The capital's peak consumption has increased by an estimated 5–6% annually, exceeding new supplies and causing frequent disruptions. Maintaining expenditure throughout the value chain and improving business generation and distribution are both necessary to close that gap.

### Grid Rehabilitation and Interconnection

Gabon operates several largely isolated networks rather than one national grid. Planned 225 kV links connecting Libreville to the Kinguélé and Tchimbélé hydro complex, and longer-term ties to Republic of Congo under the Central African Power Pool master plan, aim to pool reserves and evacuate new hydro output. Lenders including the World Bank have flagged transmission as the binding constraint on renewable integration, making network capex a durable growth contributor [10].

### Private Capital and PPP Frameworks

The 2021 electricity sector reforms opened generation to independent power producers and clarified the role of the sector regulator, ARSEE. The Kinguélé Aval structure, pairing Meridiam with the Gabonese sovereign fund FGIS through Gabon Power Company, showed that long-tenor concessions can close with multilateral guarantees [5]. Investors benefit from the CFA franc's euro peg, which reduces currency risk relative to many frontier peers [11].

### Mining and Industrial Load

Gabon is among the world's largest manganese producers, with output from the Moanda basin exceeding 7 million tonnes in recent years [11]. Expansion of local processing, the Nkok special economic zone for timber transformation, and renewed interest in the Belinga iron ore deposit all add concentrated industrial demand [11]. Industrial customers pay cost-reflective tariffs and often sign long-term supply contracts, improving utility revenue quality.

### Gas-to-Power from Associated Gas

Gabon flares a meaningful share of associated gas from mature offshore fields, with flared volumes estimated at several hundred million cubic metres a year [23]. Redirecting that gas to power plants in Port-Gentil and Owendo offers low-cost firm capacity while cutting emissions. Operators have advanced gas capture schemes that supply existing thermal units, supporting short-term reliability while hydro projects are completed [12].

## Restraints

## Restraints Impact Analysis

Restraint impacts are directional estimates of downward pressure on growth in the Gabon Power Market. They overlap with driver effects and should not be summed against the headline CAGR.

| Restraint | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ageing thermal fleet and load shedding | −0.5% | Estuaire, Ogooué-Maritime | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [7] |
| Declining oil and gas production | −0.4% | National | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [12][13] |
| Utility financial stress and arrears | −0.4% | National | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [11] |
| High technical and commercial losses | −0.3% | National | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [3] |
| Political transition and regulatory uncertainty | −0.3% | National | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [11] |

### Ageing Thermal Fleet and Load Shedding

The majority of Gabon's thermal capacity is over 20 years old, and available capacity sometimes falls significantly short of nameplate values [7]. In Libreville, frequent outages in 2023 and 2024 necessitated expensive per-kWh emergency capacity rentals. These stopgaps take money away from long-term investments and increase the system's average cost of supply.

### Declining Oil and Gas Production

From a peak of around 370,000 barrels per day in the late 1990s, Gabon's oil output has decreased to about 200,000 barrels per day [12][13]. The amount of associated gas available for power will decrease as older fields decline, and fuel imports may increase. The cost base of gas-fired power and the fiscal capacity that supports the industry are at risk due to this change.

### Utility Financial Stress and Arrears

SEEG, the national utility, has faced persistent liquidity pressure from public-sector arrears and below-cost tariffs [11]. Government entities are among its largest debtors, and delayed payments weaken its creditworthiness as an offtaker. Private producers therefore demand sovereign guarantees or multilateral cover, lengthening financial close timelines.

### High Technical and Commercial Losses

Combined technical and commercial losses in Gabon's distribution networks are estimated at 20–25% of generated output [3]. Ageing lines, illegal connections and billing gaps erode revenue that could otherwise fund maintenance. Loss reduction programmes are underway, but progress depends on metering investment and enforcement capacity.

### Political Transition and Regulatory Uncertainty

The August 2023 change of government and the transition that followed prompted audits of utility contracts and sector governance [11]. The April 2025 presidential election restored a more stable framework, yet investors continue to watch for contract renegotiations and shifts in tariff policy. Such uncertainty can delay project decisions by several quarters.

## Opportunities

## Gabon Power Market Opportunities

Opportunities in the Gabon Power Market cluster around underserved interior provinces, new financing models and [digital utility](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/digital-utility-market-4140) services.

### Solar-Hybrid Mini-Grids for Interior Provinces

Rural electrification rates in Gabon lag far behind urban levels, with many interior villages still dependent on diesel or lacking supply altogether [3]. Solar-plus-storage mini-grids now deliver power at lower lifecycle cost than diesel in remote settings, World Bank analysis of more than 500 projects highlighted [22]. Woleu-Ntem, Ogooué-Ivindo and Ogooué-Lolo present the largest gap, aligning with the fastest regional growth.

### Climate Finance and Carbon-Linked Business Models

Gabon completed a USD 500 million debt-for-nature conversion in 2023, demonstrating investor appetite for conservation-linked sovereign instruments [15]. The country's forest-carbon record and Article 6 ambitions open a path to blending carbon revenue with renewable project finance [16]. Developers that structure hydro or solar assets to capture verified emission reductions can lower their effective cost of capital.

### Regional Power Trade via the Central African Power Pool

The Central African Power Pool master plan envisions cross-border lines linking Gabon with Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Gabon's surplus hydro potential could position it as a net exporter during wet seasons, creating demand for interconnection substations and trading arrangements. Early movers in transmission EPC and market design advisory stand to benefit.

### Smart Metering and Utility Data Monetisation

Prepaid and smart metering can cut commercial losses and generate granular consumption data [3]. Utilities across Africa increasingly use that data for targeted tariff design, credit scoring of customers and demand forecasting. A metering-as-a-service model, in which private firms finance meters and share recovered revenue with SEEG, suits the utility's constrained balance sheet.

### Captive-to-Grid Conversion for Industrial Users

Mining, timber and oil operators run substantial captive diesel and gas capacity because grid supply is unreliable [11]. As hydro output grows, these customers can switch to grid power or solar-hybrid systems under long-term contracts. Service providers offering conversion, energy management and power purchase structuring can capture this demand.

## Future Outlook

## Gabon Power Market Future Outlook

Four themes will shape the Gabon Power Market over the next decade, each tied to measurable macro trends.

### Hydro-Led Decarbonisation of the Supply Mix

Africa added only modest hydro capacity in recent years despite holding some of the world's largest untapped potential [2]. Gabon's pipeline of more than 120 MW in near-term projects could lift hydro's share of generation well above half by the early 2030s [6]. Lower fuel use would cut supply costs and support Gabon's updated NDC pledge to hold emissions below 2000 levels [16].

### Digital Utility Operations

SCADA, advanced metering and outage management systems are becoming standard requirements in multilateral-financed grid projects [10]. Digitalisation can reduce losses by several percentage points and improve SEEG's billing accuracy. By the mid-2030s, data-driven operations should support time-of-use tariffs for large customers and more reliable dispatch of variable solar output.

### Regional Integration and Power Trade

Universal electricity access across Africa would require roughly USD 25 billion a year in investment through 2030 [1]. Regional pools such as the Central African Power Pool aim to spread that investment efficiently by sharing reserves. Gabon's surplus hydro potential gives it a strategic role, provided cross-border lines and trading rules mature on schedule.

### Industrialisation-Driven Demand

Gabon's policy push to process manganese, timber and other resources locally will raise baseload demand [11]. Industrial consumers want reliable, competitively priced and increasingly low-carbon supply to meet export-market requirements. This demand profile favours long-term contracts and dedicated hydro or hybrid supply, improving the bankability of new capacity [25].

## Segment Insights

## Gabon Power Market Segmentation

### By Sector

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Power Generation | 64.5% share | New hydro capacity and thermal replacement |
| Transmission and Distribution | 4.2% CAGR | 225 kV corridors, metering and loss reduction |

Within the Gabon Power Market, Power Generation holds the larger share because hydro and thermal plants absorb most capital spending and revenue. Its growth tracks the commissioning of Kinguélé Aval, Ngoulmendjim and Dibwangui [5][6]. Transmission and Distribution grows faster, as lenders and the government now treat network weakness as the main bottleneck. New lines, substations and prepaid meters are needed to evacuate hydro output and cut losses estimated at 20–25% [3].

### By Power Generation

| Segment | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Hydropower | 48.6% share | Large concessions and existing Mbei and Ogooué basin plants |
| Natural Gas | USD 135.1 Million | Associated gas supply to Port-Gentil and Owendo |
| Others | 5.3% CAGR | Solar PV, hybrids and residual oil-fired units |

Hydropower leads generation in the Gabon Power Market, supported by Grand Poubara, Kinguélé and Tchimbélé, and its lead will widen as new concessions come online [2][24]. Natural Gas remains essential for firm capacity in Port-Gentil and Owendo, though declining field output caps long-term expansion [12]. Others, mainly solar PV and hybrid systems with some oil-fired units, grows fastest as mini-grids and utility-scale solar fill gaps in interior provinces [22].

## Regional Market Share Analysis

## Regional Market Share Analysis

| Region | Key Metric (2025) | Primary Investment Themes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué | 46.8% share | Urban distribution upgrades, Kinguélé Aval hydro, Owendo thermal |
| Haut-Ogooué and Ogooué-Lolo | USD 112.7 Million | Grand Poubara hydro, manganese processing loads |
| Ogooué-Maritime | 14.6% share | Gas-to-power, oil-sector demand in Port-Gentil |
| Ngounié and Nyanga | USD 68.6 Million | Impératrice Falls hydro, rural connections |
| Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo | 5.1% CAGR | Mini-grids, Belinga mining, northern grid extension |
| Total | USD 612.4 Million | Hydro-led supply expansion and network reinforcement |

The Gabon Power Market is analysed across five sub-national zones that reflect the country's separate grid systems and load centres. Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué dominates on population and industry, while the northern interior grows fastest from a low base [3].

### Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué

| Province | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Estuaire | 88.6% share of zone | Libreville–Owendo urban and port demand |
| Moyen-Ogooué | 4.3% CAGR | Lambaréné grid tie-in to Libreville network |

Estuaire concentrates the capital, the Owendo port and the Nkok economic zone, making it the country's largest consumption hub [7]. The Kinguélé and Tchimbélé hydro plants on the Mbei River supply much of its base load, with Kinguélé Aval adding 35 MW [5]. Moyen-Ogooué benefits from planned 225 kV extensions that bring Lambaréné onto the capital's grid.

### Haut-Ogooué and Ogooué-Lolo

| Province | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Haut-Ogooué | USD 94.8 Million | Grand Poubara hydro and Moanda manganese processing |
| Ogooué-Lolo | 15.9% share of zone | Koulamoutou network extension |

Haut-Ogooué hosts the 160 MW Grand Poubara hydro station, built by Sinohydro and commissioned in 2013, which supplies Franceville and the Moanda mining basin [24]. Manganese beneficiation and ferroalloy ambitions keep industrial demand rising [11]. Ogooué-Lolo remains thinly connected, so extending lines from the eastern grid is the main investment theme.

### Ogooué-Maritime

| Province | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Port-Gentil | 79.2% share of zone | Oil services, refining and gas-fired generation |
| Rest of Ogooué-Maritime | 3.9% CAGR | Gamba and Omboué oil-field communities |

Port-Gentil runs its own gas-fired network, fed by associated gas from offshore fields [13]. Declining production poses a long-term risk to fuel supply, but gas capture projects offer a near-term buffer [23]. Smaller settlements such as Gamba depend on operator-supplied power, a candidate for future captive-to-grid conversion.

### Ngounié and Nyanga

| Province | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ngounié | USD 41.8 Million | Impératrice Falls hydro and Mouila demand |
| Nyanga | 39.1% share of zone | Tchibanga and Mayumba electrification |

The Impératrice Falls hydro project on the Ngounié River, associated with China Gezhouba Group, aims to replace diesel supply in Mouila and nearby towns [17]. Nyanga relies largely on small thermal units, and solar-hybrid solutions are gaining attention. Both provinces benefit from rural connection funds supported by multilateral lenders [10].

### Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo

| Province | Key Metric (2025) | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Woleu-Ntem | 57.3% share of zone | Oyem and Bitam grid upgrades, cross-border trade |
| Ogooué-Ivindo | 5.8% CAGR | Belinga iron ore and Booué hydro potential |

Woleu-Ntem's towns sit near Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, making them candidates for early regional interconnection. Ogooué-Ivindo holds the Belinga iron ore deposit and the Booué hydro site, which together could anchor a step change in demand and supply. Mini-grids currently fill gaps in remote districts [22].

## Competitive Benchmarking

## Competitive Benchmarking

The Gabon Power Market is moderately concentrated, with an estimated HHI of 1,450–1,650. The top five participants hold roughly 60–66% of sector revenue, led by the state utility SEEG, while international developers, EPC contractors and equipment suppliers compete for concessions and project contracts [7].

| Company | Est. Revenue Share Range | Key Offerings for Gabon Power Market | Strategic Positioning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| SEEG | ~30–36% | Transmission, distribution, retail supply, thermal and hydro operation | State-owned incumbent utility and single offtaker |
| Eranove SA | ~7–10% | Ngoulmendjim and Dibwangui hydro concessions | Pan-African developer partnering with Asonga |
| Meridiam / Gabon Power Company | ~6–9% | Kinguélé Aval hydro concession | Long-term infrastructure investor with sovereign fund partner |
| China Gezhouba Group Company Limited | ~5–8% | Hydro EPC, Impératrice Falls project | Chinese EPC leader with financing linkages |
| Sinohydro (Power Construction Corporation of China) | ~5–7% | Grand Poubara construction and hydro services | Established hydro builder in Gabon |
| Engie SA | ~3–6% | Gas-to-power, distributed energy and services | Global utility with African decentralised energy focus |
| TBEA Co. Ltd | ~3–5% | Transmission lines, substations, transformers | EPC and equipment supplier for grid projects |
| Genser Energy Holdings Inc. | ~2–4% | Gas-fired captive and grid power plants | Industrial power specialist targeting mining loads |
| Asonga | ~1–3% | Local co-development of hydro projects | Gabonese partner enabling local content |
| Perenco | ~1–3% | Associated gas supply for power generation | Upstream operator monetising flared gas |

## Recent News & Developments

## Recent News & Developments

Recent activity in the Gabon Power Market centres on hydro project progress, utility reform and grid financing.

- Government of Gabon (October 2023): The transitional authorities ordered an audit of SEEG operations and emergency measures to address load shedding in Libreville, signalling sector governance reform [7].
- Gabon Power Company and Meridiam (March 2024): Civil works at the 35 MW Kinguélé Aval site advanced, keeping the first privately financed hydro concession on track for commissioning [5].
- Eranove and Asonga (June 2024): The partners progressed financing and permitting for Ngoulmendjim and Dibwangui, which together add 88 MW of hydro supply [6].
- Ministry of Energy (September 2024): Officials announced plans to restructure SEEG, separating electricity and water activities to improve accountability and investment planning.
- China Gezhouba Group (November 2024): Work continued on the Impératrice Falls hydro project serving Ngounié province, reducing diesel dependence in the south [17].
- TBEA Co. Ltd (February 2025): The company pursued substation and transmission contracts tied to grid reinforcement around Libreville [18].
- World Bank (May 2025): New support for Gabon's energy access and utility performance was discussed, targeting metering and loss reduction [10].

## Report Scope

| Parameter | Details |
| --- | --- |
| Market Scope | The Gabon Power Market covers power generation from hydropower, natural gas and other sources, plus transmission and distribution of electricity to end users. |
| Study Period | 2021–2035 |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Historical Data | 2021–2024 |
| Forecast Period | 2026–2035 |
| Market Size in 2025 | USD 612.4 Million |
| Market Size in 2035 | USD 872.2 Million |
| CAGR (2026–2035) | 3.6% |
| Fastest Growing Segments | Others (5.3% CAGR); Transmission and Distribution (4.2% CAGR); Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo (5.1% CAGR) |
| Regions Covered | Gabon: Estuaire and Moyen-Ogooué, Haut-Ogooué and Ogooué-Lolo, Ogooué-Maritime, Ngounié and Nyanga, Woleu-Ntem and Ogooué-Ivindo |
| Companies Profiled | SEEG, Eranove SA, Meridiam, Gabon Power Company, China Gezhouba Group Company Limited, Sinohydro, Engie SA, TBEA Co. Ltd, Genser Energy Holdings Inc., Asonga, Perenco |
| Valuation Currency | USD Million |
| Methodology | 350+ primary expert interviews; bottom-up market sizing; top-down validation; data triangulation; scenario-based forecasting; real-time project tracking |

## Frequently Asked Questions

**Q: What contract terms do private generators typically secure in the Gabon Power Market?**
A: Private plants usually sign 25–30 year take-or-pay power purchase agreements with SEEG. The CFA franc's euro peg limits currency risk compared with many African markets, which helps lenders accept long tenors [9].

**Q: How do hydro concessions compare with gas plants on risk?**
A: Hydro concessions carry higher upfront geological and hydrological risk but almost no fuel exposure over 30-year lives. Gas plants reach operation faster and cost less per MW, yet depend on declining associated-gas volumes [12][13].

**Q: Which criteria matter most when procuring grid equipment in Gabon?**
A: Tropical-rated equipment, local after-sales support and compatibility with SEEG's 225 kV and 90 kV standards carry the most weight. Bids bundled with multilateral or export-credit financing usually score higher [4].

**Q: What role does Gabon's sovereign fund play in the Gabon Power Market?**
A: FGIS takes minority equity in strategic generation assets, including its stake in Gabon Power Company. That participation signals state alignment and often eases permitting and offtake negotiations for co-investors in the Gabon Power Market [5].

**Q: Are captive power systems common among Gabonese industrial users?**
A: Yes. Manganese miners, Nkok timber processors and oil operators run sizeable captive diesel and gas units because grid reliability lags their needs [11].

**Q: Could carbon credits influence investment in the Gabon Power Market?**
A: Gabon seeks to monetise forest-carbon results under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. Carbon revenue could co-finance renewable plants and lower blended capital costs for clean generation in the Gabon Power Market [16].

**Q: What integration challenges do new hydro plants face?**
A: Fragmented networks often lack evacuation lines sized for full plant output. Seasonal flow swings on rivers such as the Mbei and Ngounié also require thermal backup during dry months [14].


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