# Floor Coatings Market

> Floor Coatings Market Size, Share & Industry Analysis Research Report By Application (Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Institutional, Retail), By Type (Epoxy, Polyurethane, Polyaspartic, Cementitious, Acrylic), By Technology (Water-Based, Solvent-Based, High Solids, UV-Cured), By End Use (Flooring Systems, Coatings for Parking Lots, Coatings for Warehouses, Coatings for Manufacturing Plants) and By Regional (North America, Europe, South America, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa) - Forecast to 2035

- **Forecast Period:** 2026-2035
- **CAGR:** 4.89%
- **2025:** USD 10.17 Billion
- **2035:** USD 16.40 Billion
- **Key Players:** Sherwin-Williams, PPG Industries, RPM International, BASF SE, Sika AG, Akzo Nobel, Nippon Paint Holdings, Asian Paints

**Report ID:** MRFR/CnM/1648-HCR · **Pages:** 200 · **Author:** Chitranshi Jaiswal · **Last Updated:** July 02, 2026

**URL:** https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/floor-coatings-market-2218

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## Market Summary

As per Market Research Future analysis, the Floor Coatings Market Size was estimated at 3.9 USD Billion in 2024. The Floor Coatings industry is projected to grow from 4.124 USD Billion in 2025 to 7.208 USD Billion by 2035, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.74% during the forecast period 2025 - 2035

## Market Drivers

## Driver Impact Analysis

| Driver | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Cold-chain & logistics real-estate expansion | +0.9% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [2] |
| EV-battery gigafactory construction wave | +0.8% | Asia-Pacific, North America | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [4] |
| VOC regulation tightening (EU Decopaint, EPA) | +0.7% | Europe, North America | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [3] |
| Clean-room & pharmaceutical facility standards | +0.6% | Asia-Pacific, Europe | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [7] |
| UV-cured technology adoption in 24/7 operations | +0.5% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [4] |
| Retail & hospitality renovation cycle | +0.4% | North America, Europe | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [11] |
| Antimicrobial and anti slip floor coatings mandates | +0.3% | Global | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [12] |

### Cold-Chain and Logistics Infrastructure Expansion

Global [cold-chain logistics](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/cold-chain-logistics-market-55042) capacity expanded by approximately 19% between 2021 and 2024, according to the International Association of Refrigerated Warehouses [[2]](https://gcca.org/resources). These facilities demand antimicrobial epoxy floor coatings rated for continuous thermal cycling between –25 °C and ambient, a specification that has lifted average floor-coating spend per square meter by 35% relative to standard dry warehousing. Amazon, Lineage Logistics, and Americold collectively committed over USD 12 billion to cold-storage construction through 2027, directly enlarging the addressable Floor Coatings Market for high-performance protective flooring systems [[2]](https://gcca.org/resources)[[6]](https://commerce.gov).

### EV-Battery Gigafactory Build-Out

The global pipeline of announced battery gigafactories exceeded 350 facilities by mid-2024, representing roughly 8 TWh of planned capacity by 2030 [[4]](https://about.bnef.com). Each gigafactory typically requires 50,000–150,000 m² of conductive or ESD-rated flooring, with specifications favoring polyurethane floor coatings and specialist epoxy floor coatings formulated for chemical splash resistance. BloombergNEF estimates that flooring and surface coating materials represent 2.5–3.0% of total gigafactory fit-out costs, translating into a USD 1.2 Billion cumulative opportunity through 2032 [[4]](https://about.bnef.com).

### VOC Regulatory Tightening

Europe's Decopaint Directive revision (effective January 2025) lowered allowable VOC content for [industrial floor](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/industrial-flooring-market-40591) paints from 140 g/L to 100 g/L, effectively mandating water-borne or UV-cured chemistries for interior applications [[3]](https://ec.europa.eu/environment). The U.S. EPA's proposed Architectural Coatings Rule (2024 draft) follows a similar trajectory. These regulatory shifts reward formulators who have already invested in low-emission concrete floor protection technologies, creating a structural advantage for companies operating vertically integrated water-borne and UV-cured resin platforms [[3]](https://ec.europa.eu/environment)[[13]](https://epa.gov).

### Clean-Room and Pharmaceutical Facility Growth

India's Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for pharmaceuticals and medical devices has catalyzed over USD 15 billion in greenfield manufacturing investment since 2021, each facility requiring GMP-grade decorative floor coatings with seamless, non-porous finishes [[7]](https://dpiit.gov.in). Similar build-out programs in Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia are extending clean-room floor coating demand across the ASEAN corridor, reinforcing Asia-Pacific's position as the fastest-growing contributor to the global Floor Coatings Market [[7]](https://dpiit.gov.in)[[14]](https://cushmanwakefield.com).

## Restraints

## Restraints Impact Analysis

| Restraint | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Raw-material cost volatility (epoxy resins, TDI) | –0.5% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [5] |
| Certified installer shortage | –0.4% | North America, Europe | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [9] |
| Supply-chain disruptions for specialty additives | –0.3% | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [15] |
| Lengthy approval cycles for novel chemistries | –0.2% | Europe | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [3] |
| Price sensitivity in emerging-market construction | –0.2% | South America, MEA | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [10] |

### Raw-Material Cost Volatility

Bisphenol-A epoxy resin prices swung by over 40% between Q1 2022 and Q3 2023, driven by upstream benzene and epichlorohydrin supply disruptions [[5]](https://icis.com). Toluene diisocyanate (TDI), the primary feedstock for polyurethane floor coatings, experienced similar volatility. These swings compress margins for mid-tier formulators lacking backward integration and introduce bid-price uncertainty that delays project awards — particularly in cost-sensitive commercial floor coatings segments [[5]](https://icis.com)[[15]](https://woodmac.com).

### Certified Installer Shortage

The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) and SSPC jointly estimated in 2024 that North America faces a shortfall of approximately 18,000 qualified floor-coating applicators, a gap expected to widen by 6% annually through 2030 [[9]](https://ampp.org). In Europe, similar constraints affect Germany and the UK. This shortage extends project timelines, increases labor costs, and occasionally forces facility owners to accept lower-specification durable flooring solutions than originally designed [[9]](https://ampp.org).

### Supply-Chain Fragility for Specialty Additives

UV photoinitiators, antimicrobial silver-ion additives, and conductive carbon-fiber fillers are sourced from a narrow supplier base concentrated in China and Japan [[15]](https://woodmac.com). Any disruption — tariff escalation, logistics bottleneck, or plant outage — ripples through the Floor Coatings Market within weeks, as formulators carry limited safety stock of these high-value inputs [[15]](https://woodmac.com).

## Opportunities

## Floor Coatings Market Opportunities

### Bio-Based and Circular-Economy Resin Platforms

Plant-derived epoxy resins (cashew nutshell liquid, lignin-based systems) already meet 85–90% of the performance of petrochemical-grade resins in concrete floor protection applications [[8]](https://pubs.acs.org). Early mover formulators can leverage premium pricing in sustainability-conscious European and North American markets.

### Automated and Robotic Application Systems

Autonomous floor-coating robots that can apply primer, body-coat and topcoat in a single pass directly solve the installation shortage. Companies that license or build robotic applicator platforms can minimize their dependence on labor by 60% and so get into the underserved rural and remote-site segments within the Floor Coatings Market [[9]](https://ampp.org).

### Emerging-Market Warehouse Modernization

Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia are seeing a boom in logistics-facility modernization, swapping bare concrete for coated protective flooring solutions. In 2024, Africa’s warehouse building pipeline was more than USD 4.8 billion, while floor coating penetration was less than 30%, indicating a substantial greenfield opportunity [[10]](https://worldbank.org)[[14]](https://cushmanwakefield.com).

### Smart and Functional Coatings

From lab to pilot rollout are coatings with IoT-readable wear sensors, self-healing microcapsules, or photocatalytic air-purification layers. These functional surface coating materials are 2-3× more expensive per square meter than standard ornamental floor coatings, therefore providing a value-expansion opportunity for inventive vendors [[12]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com).

### Data-Driven Specification and Lifecycle Services

Coating manufacturers that integrate digital specification tools, predictive maintenance dashboards, and lifecycle-cost calculators into their sales process can lock in long-term service contracts worth 15–25% of initial project value — a recurring revenue stream largely untapped in the Floor Coatings Market today [[11]](https://mckinsey.com).

## Future Outlook

## Floor Coatings Market Future Outlook

### Sustainability and Circular-Economy Formulations

By 2030, the IEA projects that industrial decarbonization mandates will compel coatings manufacturers to disclose Scope 3 emissions across their resin supply chains [[8]](https://pubs.acs.org). Bio-based and recycled-content floor coatings — currently under 3% of global volume — are expected to reach 10–12% penetration by 2035, driven by green-building certification requirements (LEED v5, BREEAM) that award credits for low-carbon protective flooring systems [[8]](https://pubs.acs.org)[[16]](https://usgbc.org).

### Digitalization of Specification and Application

AI-powered specification engines are already matching facility parameters (traffic type, chemical exposure, temperature range) to optimal coating systems in under 60 seconds, compressing a process that traditionally took weeks of consultant review [[11]](https://mckinsey.com). Robotic application platforms, paired with real-time thickness and adhesion sensors, will reduce rework rates for epoxy floor coatings by an estimated 40% by 2030, directly addressing the installer shortage restraint [[9]](https://ampp.org).

### Electrification and Cleanroom Supercycle

The U.S. Department of Energy forecasts that domestic battery manufacturing capacity will reach 1.2 TWh by 2032, while the EU Battery Regulation mandates local cell production for all EV models sold in Europe by 2035 [[4]](https://about.bnef.com)[[17]](https://ec.europa.eu). Each facility requires specialized conductive and ESD-rated polyurethane floor coatings, creating a sustained demand wave that underpins above-market-CAGR growth in the Floor Coatings Market for at least the next decade.

### Functional and Smart Coating Integration

Self-sensing coatings that monitor structural load, moisture ingress, and surface wear via embedded piezoelectric or capacitive sensors are expected to transition from pilot to commercial deployment by 2028–2030 [[12]](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com). These next-generation durable flooring solutions will command premium pricing and open recurring revenue streams through condition-monitoring service contracts, reshaping the competitive landscape toward technology-integrated suppliers.

## Segment Insights

## Floor Coatings Market Segmentation

### By Product Type

| Segment | Key Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Epoxy | 53.9% revenue share (2025) | Warehousing, manufacturing, and food-processing facilities |
| Polyurethane | 5.06% CAGR (2026–2035) | Automotive and high-abrasion environments |
| Polyaspartic | USD 0.74 Billion (2025) | Rapid-cure retail and healthcare applications |
| Others | 4.52% CAGR (2026–2035) | Specialty applications including MMA and acrylic |

Epoxy floor coatings dominate the Floor Coatings Market because of their unmatched combination of chemical resistance, adhesion strength, and cost efficiency on concrete substrates. Cold-storage logistics, EV-battery manufacturing, and food-processing facilities all specify epoxy as the baseline chemistry. Polyurethane floor coatings are the fastest-growing product segment by CAGR, favored in automotive assembly where abrasion resistance under forklift traffic outweighs epoxy's chemical-resistance advantage. The segment also benefits from flexible formulations that tolerate thermal movement in outdoor loading docks and parking structures.

### By Technology

| Segment | Key Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| UV Cured | 37.8% revenue share (2025) | Zero-downtime 24/7 production environments |
| Water-Borne | 5.21% CAGR (2026–2035) | VOC regulation compliance |
| Solvent-Borne | USD 2.48 Billion (2025) | Legacy industrial specifications |
| Powder | 4.38% CAGR (2026–2035) | Niche metal-substrate applications |

UV-cured surface coating materials hold the largest technology share within the Floor Coatings Market, reflecting a decisive shift toward instant-cure systems that allow facilities to resume operations within minutes of application. Water-borne formulations are gaining share at the fastest rate, propelled by the EU Decopaint Directive and EPA draft rules that effectively cap solvent content in industrial floor paints [[3]](https://ec.europa.eu/environment)[[13]](https://epa.gov).

### By Floor Material

| Segment | Key Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Concrete | 74.8% revenue share (2025) | Dominant substrate in industrial and commercial construction |
| Others (wood, metal, terrazzo) | 5.12% CAGR (2026–2035) | Renovation and specialty applications |

Concrete floor protection accounts for the overwhelming majority of Floor Coatings Market demand because concrete remains the universal substrate in warehouses, factories, and commercial buildings globally. Growth in this segment tracks new industrial construction starts, with Asia-Pacific contributing the largest incremental square-meter volume annually.

### By End-Use Industry

| Segment | Key Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Industrial / Institutional | 45.1% revenue share (2025) | Manufacturing, pharma clean rooms, food processing |
| Commercial | 4.98% CAGR (2026–2035) | Retail renovation, hospitality, healthcare |
| Others (residential, infrastructure) | USD 1.42 Billion (2025) | Garage and public-infrastructure coatings |

The industrial and institutional segment anchors the Floor Coatings Market, driven by stringent hygiene, chemical-resistance, and anti slip floor coatings requirements in pharmaceutical, food-processing, and electronics-manufacturing environments. Commercial applications are growing faster in percentage terms as hospitality chains and healthcare systems upgrade aging facilities with decorative floor coatings that combine aesthetics with durability [[11]](https://mckinsey.com).

## Regional Market Share Analysis

## Regional Market Share Analysis

| Region | Key Metric | Primary Investment Themes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Asia-Pacific | 41.3% revenue share (2025) | Gigafactory flooring, cold-chain logistics, pharma clean rooms |
| North America | USD 2.52 Billion (2025) | Reshoring, VOC compliance, anti slip floor coatings |
| Europe | 22.1% revenue share (2025) | Decopaint compliance, sustainability-linked specs |
| South America | 4.92% CAGR (2026–2035) | Warehouse modernization, agro-industrial growth |
| Middle East & Africa | USD 0.55 Billion (2025) | Logistics hub development, mega-project flooring |
| Total | USD 10.17 Billion (2025) | — |

The Floor Coatings Market exhibits distinct regional dynamics shaped by construction intensity, regulatory stringency, and raw-material access. Asia-Pacific leads in both absolute size and growth rate, while North America and Europe drive premiumization toward low-VOC and high-performance chemistries.

### North America

| Country | Key Metric | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| United States | 78.4% of regional share | Reshoring industrial construction; EPA VOC rules |
| Canada | 4.51% CAGR (2026–2035) | Cold-storage and food-processing expansion |
| Mexico | USD 0.18 Billion (2025) | Nearshoring-driven factory build-out |

North America's Floor Coatings Market benefits from over USD 200 billion in committed manufacturing reshoring investments, with semiconductor fabs, EV-battery plants, and pharmaceutical facilities each specifying advanced epoxy floor coatings and polyurethane floor coatings [[6]](https://commerce.gov). The U.S. accounts for the lion's share of regional demand, while Mexico's nearshoring corridor along the northern border states is driving rapid growth in industrial floor paints for greenfield automotive and electronics plants.

### Europe

| Country | Key Metric | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Germany | 23.6% of regional share | Automotive and chemical-plant refurbishment |
| United Kingdom | 4.68% CAGR (2026–2035) | Life-sciences and logistics park expansion |
| France | USD 0.28 Billion (2025) | Food-grade and pharmaceutical flooring |
| Italy | 11.2% of regional share | Ceramics-industry facility upgrades |
| Spain | 4.55% CAGR (2026–2035) | Logistics and cold-chain infrastructure |
| Nordic Countries | USD 0.19 Billion (2025) | Strict VOC limits favoring water-borne systems |
| Russia | 7.8% of regional share | Heavy-industry and petrochemical plants |
| Rest of Europe | 4.42% CAGR (2026–2035) | Eastern European warehouse build-out |

The EU's revised Decopaint Directive is the single most influential regulatory catalyst in this region, compelling a market-wide shift to water-borne and UV-cured protective flooring systems [[3]](https://ec.europa.eu/environment). Germany's automotive sector remains the largest end-use vertical for concrete floor protection in Europe, while the UK's life-sciences corridor around the "Golden Triangle" is generating sustained demand for GMP-grade decorative floor coatings.

### Asia-Pacific

| Country | Key Metric | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| China | 44.8% of regional share | Gigafactory and cold-chain construction |
| India | 5.28% CAGR (2026–2035) | PLI-driven pharma and electronics manufacturing |
| Japan | USD 0.52 Billion (2025) | Semiconductor fab refurbishment |
| South Korea | 9.6% of regional share | Battery and display manufacturing |
| ASEAN | 5.35% CAGR (2026–2035) | FDI-driven industrial park development |
| Rest of Asia-Pacific | USD 0.24 Billion (2025) | Infrastructure modernization |

Asia-Pacific's dominance in the Floor Coatings Market reflects the region's unmatched pace of industrial construction. China alone added over 180 million m² of new logistics warehouse space in 2023, each facility representing a specification opportunity for epoxy floor coatings and durable flooring solutions [[4]](https://about.bnef.com)[[14]](https://cushmanwakefield.com). India's PLI-linked pharmaceutical corridor and ASEAN's electronic-manufacturing hubs ensure that the region will maintain the highest growth rate globally through 2035.

### South America

| Country | Key Metric | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Brazil | 62.5% of regional share | Agro-industrial and logistics expansion |
| Argentina | 4.78% CAGR (2026–2035) | Mining and food-processing facilities |
| Rest of South America | USD 0.09 Billion (2025) | Warehouse modernization |

Brazil's agro-industrial complex and expanding e-commerce logistics network drive the bulk of South American demand for industrial floor paints and concrete floor protection. Currency volatility and import dependence for specialty resins remain headwinds, but rising domestic production of water-borne formulations is gradually reducing cost barriers [[10]](https://worldbank.org).

### Middle East & Africa

| Country | Key Metric | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Saudi Arabia | 31.4% of regional share | Vision 2030 mega-projects |
| UAE | 5.15% CAGR (2026–2035) | Logistics hub and free-zone development |
| South Africa | USD 0.07 Billion (2025) | Mining and manufacturing plant upgrades |
| Egypt | 4.88% CAGR (2026–2035) | New Administrative Capital construction |
| Rest of MEA | 26.3% of regional share | Infrastructure modernization |

Saudi Arabia's NEOM and Red Sea mega-developments are generating large-scale demand for decorative floor coatings and anti slip floor coatings in hospitality and commercial facilities. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, modern logistics facilities increasingly specify surface coating materials for concrete floors that were previously left uncoated, presenting a significant greenfield opportunity for the Floor Coatings Market [[10]](https://worldbank.org).

## Competitive Benchmarking

## Competitive Benchmarking

The Floor Coatings Market exhibits low concentration, with an estimated HHI below 600 and the top five players collectively controlling approximately 28–34% of global revenue. The fragmented structure reflects strong regional and local specialists who compete on application expertise, rapid turnaround, and localized regulatory knowledge. Scale advantages accrue primarily through vertically integrated resin production and established applicator networks.

| Company | Est. Revenue Share Range | Key Offerings for Floor Coatings Market | Strategic Positioning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sherwin-Williams | ~6–9% | Epoxy, polyurethane, and water-borne floor systems | Vertically integrated resin and distribution network |
| PPG Industries | ~5–8% | High-performance industrial floor paints, anti slip systems | Global OEM and maintenance coatings leader |
| RPM International | ~4–7% | Stonhard, Tremco brands; seamless flooring | Strong institutional and pharma channel |
| BASF SE | ~3–6% | Polyurethane and MMA floor coatings; Ucrete brand | Chemical integration and R&D scale |
| Sika AG | ~3–6% | Concrete floor protection, decorative systems | Construction-chemicals channel dominance |
| Akzo Nobel | ~3–5% | International brand industrial coatings | Sustainability leadership, European footprint |
| Nippon Paint Holdings | ~2–5% | Protective and decorative floor coatings | Asia-Pacific market penetration |
| Asian Paints | ~2–4% | Industrial and commercial flooring solutions | India and South Asia distribution depth |
| Axalta Coating Systems | ~2–4% | Performance coatings for automotive and industrial | Technology-driven formulation capability |
| Teknos Group | ~1–3% | Industrial floor paints, powder coatings | Nordic sustainability standards expertise |

## Recent News & Developments

## Recent News & Developments

- BASF and Sika AG (March 2025): BASF and Sika AG have launched a new amine building block for the curing of epoxy resins, which is available on the market as BASF’s Baxxodur EC 151. This product is suitable for flooring applications in production plants, storage and assembly halls and parking decks.

- Nippon Paint (April 2024): Expanded its Southeast Asian distribution network to cover six ASEAN countries, targeting rapid growth in decorative floor coatings and concrete floor protection for logistics facilities [[14]](https://cushmanwakefield.com).

## Report Scope

## Floor Coatings Market Report Scope

| Parameter | Detail |
| --- | --- |
| Market Scope | Global Floor Coatings Market — product type, technology, floor material, end-use industry, geography |
| Study Period | 2021–2035 |
| CAGR (Forecast) | 4.89% (2026–2035) |
| Market Size (2025) | USD 10.17 Billion |
| Market Size (2035) | USD 16.40 Billion |
| Fastest Growing Segment | Water-borne technology (by CAGR); Epoxy (by absolute value) |
| Companies Profiled | 10 (Sherwin-Williams, PPG, RPM International, BASF, Sika, Akzo Nobel, Nippon Paint, Asian Paints, Axalta, Teknos) |
| Valuation Currency | USD Billion |

## Frequently Asked Questions

**Q: What is the typical installed cost per square meter for epoxy versus polyurethane floor coatings in an industrial setting?**
A: Installed costs for epoxy systems range from USD 25–45/m² depending on thickness and substrate prep, while polyurethane floor coatings typically run USD 35–60/m² due to higher raw-material costs and multi-coat requirements[5].

**Q: How do UV-cured coatings compare to water-borne systems for facilities that operate around the clock?**
A: UV-cured systems allow foot traffic within minutes of application, making them ideal for 24/7 plants. Water-borne alternatives require 4–8 hours of cure time but carry lower equipment costs [4].

**Q: Which certification standards should buyers specify when procuring anti slip floor coatings for food-processing facilities?**
A: Buyers should reference USDA acceptance, NSF/ANSI 51 for food contact, and ASTM D2047 for slip resistance. These ensure compliance with both food-safety and workplace-safety regulations [12][13].

**Q: How are conductive floor coatings specified differently for semiconductor clean rooms versus EV-battery dry rooms?**
A: Semiconductor fabs require surface resistivity of 10⁶–10⁹ ohms under ISO Class 5 particulate limits, while battery dry rooms prioritize moisture resistance below 1% dew point alongside ESD dissipation [4][21].

**Q: What procurement strategies can reduce exposure to raw-material price volatility in the Floor Coatings Market?**
A: Locking in resin-supply contracts with 12–18-month pricing windows and qualifying dual-source suppliers for TDI and bisphenol-A epoxy feedstocks significantly reduces cost exposure [5][15].

**Q: Are bio-based floor coatings durable enough for heavy-traffic industrial environments today?**
A: Current bio-based epoxy formulations achieve 85–90% of petrochemical-grade abrasion and chemical resistance. They are suitable for medium-traffic commercial spaces but not yet for heavy forklift zones [8].

**Q: How does the Floor Coatings Market opportunity differ between retrofit projects and new-build construction?**
A: Retrofit projects typically yield 20–30% higher coating spend per square meter due to surface preparation costs, while new-build projects offer larger volume but more competitive pricing[11].


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