# Data Center UPS Market

> Data Center UPS Market Size, Share and Research Report By UPS Type (Standby, Line-Interactive, Online Double-Conversion, Delta-Conversion), By Battery Type (Lead-Acid VRLA, Lithium-Ion, Nickel-Zinc & Other), By Data Center Type (Colocation, Hyperscale / Cloud, Enterprise, Edge), By Architecture (Centralized, Distributed / Modular), By Power Capacity (≤20 kVA, 21–100 kVA, >100 kVA), By Tier Type (Tier 1 and 2, Tier 3, Tier 4), By Data Center Size (Small, Medium, Large) and By Region (North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, South America, Middle East & Africa) – Industry Forecast to 2035.

- **Forecast Period:** 2026-2035
- **CAGR:** 7.05%
- **2025:** USD 4.42 Billion
- **2035:** USD 9.16 Billion
- **Key Players:** Schneider Electric, Vertiv Holdings, Eaton Corporation, ABB, Legrand, Toshiba, Mitsubishi Electric, Huawei Technologies

**Report ID:** MRFR/SEM/28457-HCR · **Pages:** 128 · **Author:** Aarti Dhapte & Aarti Dhapte · **Last Updated:** September 10, 2026

**URL:** https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/data-center-ups-market-30202

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## Market Summary

## Data Center UPS Market Summary

The data center ups market closed 2025 at USD 4.42 billion and enters the forecast window at USD 4.79 billion in 2026, climbing to USD 9.16 billion by 2035 at a 7.05% CAGR. Two catalysts anchor that trajectory. First, hyperscale capital expenditure crossed USD 300 billion globally in 2025 across the four largest cloud operators, and roughly 8–11% of every greenfield facility budget lands in the electrical backup chain [[1]](https://iea.org). Second, grid interconnection queues in Northern Virginia, Dublin and Singapore have pushed operators toward onsite energy assets that behave like power infrastructure rather than passive insurance [[3]](https://eirgrid.ie).

Replacement economics matter as much as new build. Valve-regulated lead-acid strings — the default for two decades — are being retired in favour of lithium chemistries that cut footprint by half and stretch service life past ten years. The U.S. Department of Energy's 2024 efficiency work found that transformerless topologies operating in high-efficiency mode recover 2–4 percentage points of facility electrical loss, worth USD 1.1 million annually on a 100 MW campus [[5]](https://energy.gov). That payback, not sustainability messaging, is what unlocks retrofit budgets.

North America holds 37.4% of the data center ups market in 2025, sustained by AI training campuses in Virginia, Texas and Ohio. Asia-Pacific grows fastest at 8.9% CAGR as India's data centre pipeline and China's east-data-west-computing programme mature. Europe follows at 26.1% share, constrained by planning moratoria but lifted by EU Energy Efficiency Directive reporting duties. The next decade rewards vendors who sell power as a managed system, not a box.

## Key Report Takeaways

### • By UPS Type and By Battery Type

- Double-conversion online architectures command 61.8% of installed value, reflecting Tier III and Tier IV design mandates
- Lithium-ion battery configurations expand at 12.4% CAGR through 2035, the fastest-moving sub-segment in the data center ups market.
- Modular scalable frames account for USD 1.94 billion of 2025 revenue as operators defer capacity spend

### • By Data Centre Type

- Colocation facilities represent 34.9% of demand, driven by multi-tenant SLA exposure.
- Hyperscale and cloud self-build grows at 9.6% CAGR, outpacing enterprise on-premise deployment.
- .

### • By Geography

- North America leads with 37.4% share, anchored by AI cluster construction
- Asia-Pacific posts 8.9% CAGR, the fastest regional expansion
- Middle East & Africa reaches USD 0.29 billion, small in absolute terms but strategically weighted toward sovereign cloud

## Market Size and Forecast (2021–2035)

Figures below combine bottom-up build modelling of announced megawatt capacity with vendor-reported shipment data, triangulated against utility interconnection filings and customs-level trade records for power conversion equipment. Historical values were reconciled to audited segment disclosures from four listed manufacturers.

## Market Drivers

## Driver Impact Analysis

| Driver | ~% Impact on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| AI and accelerated compute density | 2.1 | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [1] |
| Lithium chemistry cost decline | 1.4 | Global | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [6] |
| Grid instability and interconnection delay | 1.2 | NA, Europe | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [3] |
| Sovereign and regional cloud mandates | 0.9 | APAC, MEA | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [11] |
| Efficiency regulation and reporting duties | 0.7 | Europe, NA | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [8] |
| Colocation capacity expansion | 0.6 | Global | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [2] |
| Edge and micro-facility proliferation | 0.4 | APAC, NA | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [14] |

### Rack Density Is Rewriting the Electrical Room

Training clusters now draw 80–130 kW per rack against the 6–8 kW that governed design assumptions in 2018. That shift compresses the electrical room and forces higher power-density conversion equipment. The International Energy Agency projects global data centre electricity consumption reaching roughly 945 TWh by 2030, more than double the 2022 baseline of 460 TWh [[1]](https://iea.org). Every incremental terawatt-hour flows through backup conversion equipment sized to full IT load, which is why order books at the top four vendors extended past 60 weeks during 2025.

### Battery Economics Finally Favour Lithium

Cell prices fell to approximately USD 115 per kWh in 2024, down 68% from 2018 levels, according to BloombergNEF's annual survey [[6]](https://bnef.com). Total cost of ownership modelling now favours lithium over VRLA within 5.5 years on typical Tier III runtime profiles, against 9 years in 2019. Operators replacing second-generation lead-acid strings therefore choose lithium by default. Floor-space recovery adds a second layer of value: a 1 MW lithium installation occupies roughly 45% of equivalent VRLA footprint, and reclaimed white space in Ashburn carries an implied lease value above USD 900 per square metre annually.

### Grids Are No Longer Reliable Enough to Be Assumed

Dominion Energy signalled interconnection timelines stretching to 2028–2030 for parts of Loudoun County, and Ireland's EirGrid maintained its Dublin connection restriction through 2028 [[3]](https://eirgrid.ie). Operators respond by specifying longer autonomy and grid-interactive capability. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation flagged elevated shortfall risk across MISO, ERCOT and SPP in its 2025 assessment [[4]](https://nerc.com), and that assessment translates directly into procurement specifications demanding extended-runtime configurations.

### Regulation Turns Efficiency Into a Reporting Obligation

Recast EU Energy Efficiency Directive provisions require facilities above 500 kW to report energy performance annually to a Union database [[8]](https://eur-lex.europa.eu). Reported PUE becomes a competitive datapoint in colocation tenders. Because conversion losses sit inside the reported boundary, buyers now weight double-conversion efficiency in high-efficiency mode — typically 98.5–99.1% — as a scored tender criterion rather than a datasheet footnote.

## Restraints

## Restraints Impact Analysis

| Restraint | ~% Drag on CAGR | Geographic Relevance | Impact Timeline | Ref |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Capital cost of lithium retrofit | -1.1 | Global | Short-term (≤2 yr) | [6] |
| Power semiconductor supply constraints | -0.8 | Global | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [12] |
| Fire code and permitting friction | -0.6 | NA, Europe | Medium-term (2–4 yr) | [9] |
| Skilled commissioning labour shortage | -0.5 | NA, APAC | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [13] |
| Alternative topology substitution | -0.4 | Global | Long-term (≥4 yr) | [7] |

### Retrofit Capital Competes With Compute

A lithium conversion on a 20 MW facility carries USD 14–19 million in equipment and commissioning cost. Boards weighing that against GPU procurement — where a single rack of accelerators exceeds USD 3 million — routinely defer. Lead-acid strings therefore run to the end of warranty and sometimes beyond, suppressing near-term replacement volume even where lifetime economics clearly favour switching.

### Codes Lag the Technology

NFPA 855 requires distance, ventilation and hazard mitigation for stationary [energy storage](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/data-center-ups-market-30202) that many existing electrical rooms cannot provide without structural upgrades [[9]](https://nfpa.org). Local authority interpretation differs tremendously between jurisdictions in the U.S., adding 8-16 weeks to permitting on retrofit projects. Some re-specify lead-acid to skip the inspection altogether.

### Silicon Carbide Remains Allocated

Allocations through 2025 have continued to restrain supply of high voltage SiC devices, with the lion’s share of wafer output going to car traction inverters [[12]](https://woodmac.com). The manufacturers who want better power density are facing component lead times of 40 to 52 weeks. This is causing longer delivery quotes and lost awards in competitive tenders to vendors with inventories.

## Opportunities

## Data Center UPS Market Opportunities

### Grid-Interactive Assets and Demand Response Revenue

Backup fleets that lie idle 99.9 percent of the year are stranded capital. Utilities in PJM and ERCOT now accept qualifying storage into capacity and ancillary markets, with 2025 PJM capacity clearance rates reaching 329.17 USD/MW-day [[10]](https://pjm.com). A 20 MW facility that is using half of its stored energy can produce seven-figure yearly revenue, changing backup from a cost center to a contributor.

### India, Indonesia and the Sovereign Cloud Buildout

India has announced a data center pipeline of over 4.5 GW across Mumbai, Chennai and Hyderabad, supported by state-level capital subsidies of 20-25% on electrical infrastructure [[11]](https://meity.gov.in). Indonesia and Malaysia are running parallel programs. These are greenfield initiatives with no legacy installed base. Lithium and modular designs win by default, not by displacement.

### Service Contracts and Outcome-Based Monetisation

Attached service revenue — monitoring, predictive battery analytics, guaranteed availability — carries gross margins roughly double hardware. Vendors are shifting toward subscription models priced per megawatt of protected load, with remote diagnostics detecting cell degradation weeks before failure. This converts a decade-long replacement cycle into recurring annual revenue.

### Edge Deployments and Micro Facility Standardisation

Telecom operators deploying multi-access edge compute need thousands of sub-100 kVA units in unmanned locations. Standardised, factory-integrated enclosures with cellular telemetry address a fragmented installed base historically served by local integrators. Volume economics differ sharply from hyperscale, favouring vendors with distribution reach rather than engineering depth.

### Second-Life Battery Reuse and Circular Compliance

EU Battery Regulation carbon footprint declarations and recycled-content thresholds phase in from 2027 [[8]](https://eur-lex.europa.eu). Vendors establishing certified take-back and second-life pathways gain a tender advantage in Europe and pre-empt extended producer responsibility exposure. Retired [data centre](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/data-centre-market-4721)cells retain 70–80% capacity, sufficient for stationary renewable firming.

## Future Outlook

## Data Center UPS Market Future Outlook

### Autonomous Power Management

Predictive analytics on cell impedance, thermal signature and switching behaviour will move maintenance from calendar-based to condition-based across most of the installed fleet by 2032. Vendors already report 30–40% reductions in unplanned intervention on instrumented estates. The commercial consequence is a shift from replacement-cycle revenue to continuous subscription relationships.

### Backup Becomes a Grid Asset

Utilities facing peak stress will increasingly contract data centre storage capacity. The IEA notes that grid-interactive facility loads could supply meaningful flexibility in constrained regions by the early 2030s [[1]](https://iea.org). Regulatory recognition varies, but where markets permit participation, the asset's business case changes fundamentally — and specification follows the revenue.

### Electrification Pressure on Component Supply

Global power electronics demand from electric vehicles, renewables and industrial electrification will keep competing for the same wafer and magnetics capacity. IRENA projects annual grid investment must roughly double to USD 700 billion by 2030 to meet decarbonisation pathways [[7]](https://irena.org). That competition sustains component cost pressure across the forecast decade.

### Reported Sustainability as a Sales Variable

Scope 2 disclosure under CSRD and equivalent regimes places facility efficiency in audited filings. Buyers will demand conversion efficiency evidence, embodied carbon declarations and end-of-life documentation as standard tender attachments by 2028, and vendors without verified data will be scored down before technical evaluation begins.

## Segment Insights

## Data Center UPS Market Segmentation

### By UPS Type

The data center ups market segments by topology, with online double-conversion dominating wherever availability targets are contractual.

| Segment | Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Standby | USD 0.31 B (2025) | Small edge and branch deployment |
| Line-Interactive | 11.4% share | Cost-sensitive enterprise rooms |
| Online Double-Conversion | 61.8% share | Tier III/IV availability mandates |
| Delta-Conversion | 6.2% CAGR | Efficiency-focused retrofit |

Double-conversion holds because it isolates IT load from every upstream disturbance, which is the only defensible position when SLAs carry financial penalties. High-efficiency eco-mode operation has largely neutralised the historical efficiency penalty, removing the last argument for line-interactive in serious facilities. Standby units survive only at the edge, where footprint and price dominate the decision.

### By Battery Type

Chemistry choice within the data center ups market now drives more procurement debate than topology.

| Segment | Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Lead-Acid VRLA | 54.3% share | Installed base and low upfront cost |
| Lithium-Ion | 12.4% CAGR | Footprint, cycle life, TCO crossover |
| Nickel-Zinc & Other | USD 0.14 B (2025) | Thermal tolerance in hot climates |

Lead-acid still holds the majority installed share, but its position erodes roughly three percentage points annually. Lithium wins every greenfield decision where fire code permits, and increasingly wins retrofits once floor-space recovery enters the model. Nickel-zinc remains niche but gains traction in Gulf and South Asian deployments where ambient temperature punishes lithium calendar life.

### By Data Center Type

| Segment | Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Colocation | 34.9% share | Multi-tenant SLA exposure |
| Hyperscale / Cloud | 9.6% CAGR | AI cluster construction |
| Enterprise | USD 1.06 B (2025) | Legacy refresh cycles |
| Edge | 10.8% CAGR | Distributed compute rollout |

Colocation providers buy the most because their uptime guarantees are contractual and audited. Hyperscale operators buy differently — direct from manufacturers, on multi-year frame agreements, often with custom specifications that bypass channel entirely. That structural difference compresses vendor margins on the fastest-growing part of the data center ups market.

### By Architecture and Power Capacity

| Segment | Metric | Primary Demand Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Centralized | 58.9% share | Large-facility efficiency economics |
| Distributed / Modular | USD 1.94 B (2025) | Deferred capital and scalability |
| ≤20 kVA | 7.1% CAGR | Edge and network closet demand |
| 21–100 kVA | 14.7% share | Mid-tier enterprise rooms |
| >100 kVA | 8.4% CAGR | Hyperscale and colocation halls |

Centralized architecture remains the dominant segment, fueled by large-facility efficiency economics and the optimized footprint required for continuous enterprise operations. The kVA power capacity segment stands out as the fastest-growing category, propelled by the massive expansion of hyperscale data centers and high-density colocation halls driven by intensive AI workload demands.

## Regional Market Share Analysis

## Regional Market Share Analysis

| Region | Share of Global (2025) | Primary Investment Themes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| North America | 37.4% | AI campus buildout, grid-interactive backup |
| Europe | 26.1% | Efficiency reporting, planning-constrained retrofit |
| Asia-Pacific | 27.8% | Sovereign cloud, greenfield lithium adoption |
| South America | 2.1% | Submarine cable landing, colocation entry |
| Middle East & Africa | 6.6% | National cloud programmes, extreme-heat design |
| Total | 100.0% | — |

### North America

| Country | Share of Region | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| US | 84.2% | Hyperscale AI cluster construction |
| Canada | 10.1% | Hydro-powered colocation growth |
| Mexico | 5.7% | Querétaro cluster and nearshoring |

Loudoun County alone hosts more commissioned capacity than most national markets, and its constraint is no longer land but transformer and interconnection availability. Texas has absorbed the overflow, with ERCOT's large-load interconnection queue exceeding 100 GW of requests by late 2025 [[4]](https://nerc.com). Canadian operators market Quebec and Manitoba hydro against carbon-conscious tenants, while Querétaro's cluster has drawn commitments from three major cloud providers since 2023.

### Europe

| Country | Share of Region | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Germany | 22.4% | Frankfurt interconnection density |
| UK | 19.8% | London availability zone expansion |
| France | 14.1% | Nuclear baseload cost advantage |
| Italy | 8.9% | Milan submarine cable landing |
| Spain | 8.2% | Aragón renewable-adjacent campuses |
| Nordic Countries | 11.6% | Free cooling and low power cost |
| Russia | 3.7% | Domestic sovereign infrastructure |
| Rest of Europe | 11.3% | Dublin overflow to secondary hubs |

Frankfurt, London, Amsterdam, Paris and Dublin remain the reference cluster, but three of the five now operate under planning or grid restrictions. Amsterdam's moratorium and Dublin's connection freeze have pushed demand toward Berlin, Madrid and Milan. Germany's Energy Efficiency Act sets binding PUE thresholds of 1.2 for facilities commissioned from July 2026 [[8]](https://eur-lex.europa.eu), which raises the specification bar on conversion efficiency for every new German installation.

### Asia-Pacific

| Country | Share of Region | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| China | 38.6% | East-data-west-computing corridors |
| India | 19.2% | 4.5 GW announced pipeline |
| Japan | 14.4% | Osaka and Inzai cluster renewal |
| South Korea | 9.1% | Semiconductor-adjacent compute |
| ASEAN | 13.5% | Johor and Batam capacity migration |
| Rest of Asia-Pacific | 5.2% | Australian sovereign cloud |

Johor absorbed the demand Singapore's moratorium displaced, adding more than 1.5 GW of announced capacity in three years. China's national computing network programme directs eastern demand toward western clusters in Guizhou, Inner Mongolia and Gansu, where power costs run 30–40% below coastal rates. India's data centre policy framework grants infrastructure status, unlocking cheaper long-tenor debt for electrical systems [[11]](https://meity.gov.in).

### South America

| Country | Share of Region | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Brazil | 63.8% | São Paulo colocation concentration |
| Argentina | 15.4% | Buenos Aires enterprise modernisation |
| Rest of South America | 20.8% | Chile and Colombia cable landings |

São Paulo dominates regional capacity, with Barueri and Tamboré hosting the majority of carrier-neutral facilities. Brazil's grid delivers high renewable share but variable quality in industrial districts, so operators specify longer autonomy than North American peers. Chile has emerged as a secondary destination, though 2024 water-use restrictions in Quilicura forced design revisions on two announced campuses.

### Middle East & Africa

| Country | Share of Region | Key Driver |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Saudi Arabia | 34.7% | Vision 2030 national cloud |
| UAE | 29.3% | Dubai and Abu Dhabi AI hubs |
| South Africa | 16.8% | Johannesburg hyperscale entry |
| Egypt | 7.4% | Mediterranean cable convergence |
| Rest of MEA | 11.8% | Nigeria and Kenya edge growth |

Gulf programmes pair sovereign data mandates with subsidised power, producing unusually fast permit-to-power timelines. Ambient conditions drive design: battery rooms require dedicated cooling redundancy that inflates system cost by 8–12% against temperate deployments. South Africa's load-shedding history made extended autonomy standard practice long before it became a global concern, and Johannesburg operators routinely specify runtime well beyond conventional benchmarks.

## Competitive Benchmarking

## Competitive Benchmarking

Concentration is moderate. The top five suppliers hold an estimated 54–59% of global value, producing an implied HHI in the 900–1,150 band — competitive by regulatory standards, but with clear tiering between global platform vendors and regional specialists. Differentiation has shifted from hardware efficiency, where the field has converged, toward software, service networks and battery supply security.

| Company | Est. Revenue Share Range | Key Offerings for data center ups market | Strategic Positioning |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Schneider Electric | ~17–21% | Galaxy VX/VL series, EcoStruxure monitoring | Full-stack platform with services depth |
| Vertiv Holdings | ~15–19% | Liebert EXL/APM, integrated power modules | Data-centre-only focus, hyperscale aligned |
| Eaton Corporation | ~12–15% | 93PM and 9395 platforms, grid-interactive | Electrical breadth plus utility market access |
| ABB | ~6–9% | MegaFlex DPA, decentralised parallel design | Modularity and industrial channel |
| Legrand | ~4–6% | Keor HPE, Trimod configurations | European mid-market strength |
| Toshiba | ~3–5% | 4400 and G9000 series | Japanese reliability positioning |
| Mitsubishi Electric | ~3–5% | Diamond series high-efficiency units | Ultra-high-efficiency niche |
| Huawei Technologies | ~4–7% | UPS5000 with lithium integration | APAC and MEA volume leadership |
| Delta Electronics | ~3–6% | Modulon and Ultron families | Power conversion cost leadership |
| Riello Elettronica | ~2–4% | Multi Power modular range | European service network |
| Socomec | ~2–3% | Delphys and Modulys platforms | Configurable mid-power specialist |

## Recent News & Developments

## Recent News & Developments

- [Vertiv](https://www.vertiv.com/en-in/products/critical-power/power/?utm_source=google-ads&utm_medium=paid-search&utm_campaign=vertiv-branding&utm_term=branding_critical-power-2025_India&utm_content=en_text-ad_category-page)(March 2024): Launched a high-density power platform for AI racks exceeding 100 kW, signalling that conversion equipment is now designed around accelerator thermal envelopes [[15]](https://investors.vertiv.com)

- [Eaton](https://www.eaton.com/in/en-us/products/backup-power-ups-surge-it-power-distribution/backup-power-ups/data-center-facility-ups.html)(June 2024): Announced expanded North American manufacturing capacity in response to lead times exceeding one year on large-frame units [[17]](https://eaton.com)
- European Commission (May 2024): Adopted the delegated act establishing the Union data centre reporting database under the recast efficiency directive [[8]](https://eur-lex.europa.eu)
- Huawei (April 2025): Introduced a fully lithium-integrated power module targeting Middle East sovereign cloud deployments [[18]](https://huawei.com)
- NFPA (2023): Published the updated NFPA 855 edition revising spacing and hazard-mitigation requirements for stationary storage in occupied buildings [[9]](https://nfpa.org)
- ABB (November 2024): Expanded modular platform capacity ratings for hyperscale halls, addressing distributed redundancy at scale [[19]](https://abb.com)
- PJM Interconnection (July 2025): Capacity auction cleared at record pricing, strengthening the economics of enrolling facility storage in wholesale markets [[10]](https://pjm.com)

## Frequently Asked Questions

**Q: How should a buyer evaluate vendors in the data center ups market beyond price and efficiency ratings?**
A: Weight service network density and spare-parts logistics in your deployment geography — mean time to repair matters more than nameplate efficiency. Verify battery cell sourcing and second-source arrangements, since chemistry supply is the real single point of failure [12].

**Q: What contractual terms most often create problems in data center ups market procurement?**
A: Delivery-date remedies and escalation clauses. Lead times exceeding 50 weeks mean slippage cascades into commissioning penalties, so liquidated damages should be tied to your own tenant obligations rather than equipment value [17].

**Q: Is eco-mode operation safe for Tier IV facilities?**
A: Modern high-efficiency modes transfer to full conversion within a quarter-cycle, which most loads tolerate. Uptime Institute guidance still recommends validating transfer behaviour against your specific IT power supply population before enabling it estate-wide [2].

**Q: How does insurance underwriting treat lithium installations in the data center ups market?**
A: Underwriters increasingly require NFPA 855 compliance documentation, dedicated suppression and thermal-runaway detection as conditions of coverage. Premiums can rise 5–15% versus VRLA, which buyers should model into total cost comparisons [9].

**Q: What integration challenges arise when pairing systems with onsite generation?**
A: Synchronisation and load-step behaviour. Generators must accept the full step load without frequency excursion, and paralleling controls need testing under partial-block loading — a failure mode that only appears during commissioning [5].

**Q: Does an operator need different specifications for AI training versus inference workloads?**
A: Training clusters produce sharp synchronised load swings that stress conversion equipment differently than steady inference traffic. Specify dynamic response and crest-factor tolerance explicitly rather than assuming standard IT load profiles [14].

**Q: When does refurbishment beat replacement?**
A: Refurbishment makes sense when the power module remains within manufacturer support and only batteries have degraded. Once controls firmware reaches end of support, security exposure and parts scarcity generally justify full replacement [19].


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