# Blockchain Interoperability Market > Blockchain Interoperability Market Size, Share and Trends Analysis Report By Vertical (BFSI, Healthcare, Gaming & Entertainment, IT & ITes, Telecommunication, Food & Agriculture and Other Verticals), By Application (dApps, Digital Assets/NETs, Cross-chain Trading & Exchange, Cross-chain Messageing & Data Sharing) And By Region (North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, And Rest Of The World) –Market Forecast Till 2035. - **Forecast Period:** 2025 - 2035 - **CAGR:** 28.3% - **2024:** $ 0.65 Billion - **2025:** $ 0.84 Billion - **2035:** $ 10.15 Billion - **Key Players:** Polkadot (PL), Cosmos (US), Quant (GB), Wanchain (CN), Chainlink (US), Aion (CA), Interledger (US), Icon (KR), Blocknet (US) **Report ID:** MRFR/ICT/10712-HCR · **Pages:** 128 · **Author:** Ankit Gupta & Shubham Munde · **Last Updated:** April 06, 2026 **URL:** https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/blockchain-interoperability-market-12233 --- ## Market Summary ## **Blockchain Interoperability Market Overview** Blockchain Interoperability Market is projected to grow from **USD 0.83 Billion** in 2025 to **USD 7.90 Billion** by 2034, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate **(CAGR) of 28.30%** during the forecast period (2025 - 2034). Additionally, the market size for Blockchain Interoperability Market was valued at USD 0.65 billion in 2024. Increasing cross-chain asset transfer requirements across enterprises, growing adoption of blockchain and regulatory support of government are the key market drivers enhancing the market growth. **Figure 1: Blockchain Interoperability Market Size, 2025-2034 (USD Billion)** Source: Secondary Research, Primary Research, _Market Research Future_ Database and Analyst Review ### **Blockchain Interoperability Market Trends** #### **Enhancing blockchain ecosystem utility is driving the market growth** The potential of blockchain technology has been shown in a number of sectors, including finance, [supply chains](../../../reports/supply-chain-analytics-market-5512), healthcare, and government. Although each of these parties may be using a different blockchain network, many of these use cases frequently call for cooperation across many parties. These networks' interconnectivity thanks to interoperability makes it easier to create and implement intricate, multi-network use cases. The ability to conduct cross-chain transactions is one of the main advantages of blockchain interoperability. It might be difficult for different blockchains to communicate with one another and exchange value or data since they frequently use different protocols and standards. By bridging these gaps, interoperability solutions enable users to transact easily across various blockchains. Think about a situation when a user wants to exchange a digital asset from one blockchain for another without using a centralized exchange, for instance. By making it simpler for consumers to access and use various blockchain networks, interoperability facilitates the secure and trustless exchange of assets between multiple blockchains, increasing the utility of blockchain technology. Blockchain technology has shown promise in a number of industries, including identity management, supply chain management, and banking. However, for many use cases to be successful, it is necessary to combine different blockchain networks. Blockchain applications can be used in a wider range of complicated, multi-network use cases because to interoperability. For instance, the supply chain sector may use numerous blockchains for monitoring, authentication, and payment along a product's journey. These dissimilar blockchains may connect with one other thanks to interoperability, resulting in a comprehensive and impenetrable supply chain solution that improves transparency and traceability. Thus, driving the weight loss products market revenue. ### **Blockchain Interoperability Market Segment** #### **Insights****Blockchain Interoperability Vertical Insights** The global Blockchain Interoperability market segmentation, based on Vertical, includes BFSI, Healthcare, Gaming & Entertainment, IT & ITes, Telecommunication, Food & Agriculture, and other. The BFIS segment accounted for 25% of the blockchain interoperability market share in 2022. The requirement for safe, transparent, and effective data exchange will, nevertheless, drive the healthcare category to have the largest CAGR growth during the projection period. These solutions improve patient data management, streamline interoperability between dissimilar systems, and strengthen the accuracy of medical records. Interoperability solutions address major industrial concerns by potentially ensuring accurate medical histories, facilitating research collaboration, and maintaining patient privacy. They also make it possible for smart contracts and IoT devices to be integrated seamlessly, opening the door to better administrative and patient care. #### **Blockchain Interoperability Application Insights** The global Blockchain Interoperability market segmentation, based on Application includes dApps, Digital Assets/NETs, Cross-chain Trading & Exchange, Cross-chain Messageing & Data Sharing. The dApps segment held over 36% of the blockchain interoperability market share in 2022. Due to their capacity to go beyond the constraints of single-chain ecosystems, solutions for blockchain interoperability are becoming more and more popular in decentralized applications. Through seamless connectivity between several blockchain networks, these solutions promote cross-chain asset transactions and improve functionality and scalability. Interoperability allows access to a larger user base as decentralized applications grow, utilizing the advantages of different blockchains. This encourages innovation and makes it possible for developers to produce more robust and diverse applications that provide a comprehensive and integrated user experience. **Figure 2: Blockchain Interoperability Market, by Application, 2022 & 2032 (USD Billion)** Source: Secondary Research, Primary Research, _Market Research Future_ Database and Analyst Review #### **Blockchain Interoperability Regional Insights** By region, the study provides the market insights into North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific and Rest of the World. The North America Blockchain Interoperability Market dominated this market in 2022 (45.80%). The North American region has the largest market size for blockchain interoperability due to a number of important considerations. These include the region's growing use of blockchain technology across a range of sectors, including finance, healthcare, and supply chain management. Further, the U.S. Blockchain Interoperability market held the largest market share, and the Canada Blockchain Interoperability market was the fastest growing market in the North America region. Further, the major countries studied in the market report are The U.S., Canada, German, France, the UK, Italy, Spain, China, Japan, India, Australia, South Korea, and Brazil. **Figure 3: BLOCKCHAIN INTEROPERABILITY MARKET SHARE BY REGION 2022 (USD Billion)** **** **** **Source: Secondary Research, Primary Research, MRFR Database and Analyst Review** Europe Blockchain Interoperability market accounts for the second-largest market share. With multiple nations adopting blockchain technology for a range of uses, Europe has been a prominent player in the area. Blockchain technology has drawn increasing interest from European nations, including the UK, Germany, Switzerland, and Estonia. The popularity of interoperability solutions to link various blockchain networks has surged as a result of this interest. Blockchain development in the region has been affected by European Union (EU) legislation, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In order to guarantee data privacy and compliance, interoperability solutions had to be in line with these regulations. The Asia-Pacific Blockchain Interoperability Market is expected to grow at the fastest CAGR from 2023 to 2032. APAC is renowned for having a diversified blockchain ecosystem, with hotspots for blockchain innovation including China, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. Different networks and ecosystems are connected via interoperability solutions. Cross-border trade and logistics are highly prioritized in APAC countries. Blockchain technology can streamline and secure global commerce processes, but only if it is interoperable. Moreover, China’s Blockchain Interoperability market held the largest market share, and the Indian Blockchain Interoperability market was the fastest growing market in the Asia-Pacific region. ### **Blockchain Interoperability Key Market Players & Competitive Insights** Leading market players are investing heavily in research and development in order to expand their product lines, which will help the Blockchain Interoperability market, grow even more. Market participants are also undertaking a variety of strategic activities to expand their global footprint, with important market developments including new product launches, contractual agreements, mergers and acquisitions, higher investments, and collaboration with other organizations. To expand and survive in a more competitive and rising market climate, Blockchain Interoperability industry must offer cost-effective items. Manufacturing locally to minimize operational costs is one of the key business tactics used by manufacturers in the global Blockchain Interoperability industry to benefit clients and increase the market sector. In recent years, the Blockchain Interoperability industry has offered some of the most significant advantages to medicine. Major players in the Blockchain Interoperability market, including Oracle Corporation, R3, LeewayHertz, Ontology, INERY PTE. LTD., Datachain, Inc., Quant Network Limited, Band protocol, LiquidApps and Orb Labs. are attempting to increase market demand by investing in research and development operations. A global technology business, Oracle Corporation is based in Redwood City, California, in the United States. Oracle, which was established in 1977 by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, and Ed Oates, has developed into one of the biggest and most significant technological businesses in the world. This category consists of traditional software licensing and support in addition to Oracle's cloud-based applications, [platform-as-a-service (PaaS)](../../../reports/platform-as-a-service-market-1900), and infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) products. Enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), human capital management (HCM), and other cloud-based software products are all available from Oracle. Ontology is a blockchain platform and distributed ledger technology (DLT) project that aims to facilitate trust across a number of industries, including finance, supply chain management, identity verification, and more. Its objective is to build a solid platform for producing decentralized applications (dApps). Ontology has rapidly gained recognition in the blockchain industry since its creation in 2017 as a result of its distinctive strategy and wide range of products and services. Ontology places a high importance on interoperability and cross-chain capability. It aims to enable data transmission and communication between various blockchain networks by bridging them. The fact that there are so many segregated networks in the blockchain sector is one of the primary difficulties that this emphasis on interoperability helps to resolve. #### **Key Companies in the Blockchain Interoperability market include** ### Blockchain Interoperability Market Developments - **Q1 2024: Top Blockchain Projects to Watch in 2025** In 2024, Quant collaborated with UK financial institutions on tokenized securities testing and expanded its Overledger APIs to enhance interoperability within DeFi, marking a significant partnership and product development in the blockchain interoperability sector. ### **Blockchain Interoperability Market Segmentation** #### **Blockchain Interoperability Vertical Outlook** **Blockchain Interoperability Application Outlook** **Blockchain Interoperability Regional Outlook** ## Market Drivers ### Growing Interest from Enterprises The Blockchain Interoperability Market is experiencing heightened interest from enterprises seeking to leverage blockchain technology for various applications. Organizations are increasingly recognizing the limitations of isolated blockchain networks and are looking for solutions that enable interoperability. This interest is particularly evident in sectors such as supply chain management, finance, and healthcare, where the ability to share data across different systems is crucial. As enterprises invest in interoperability solutions, the market is likely to expand, driven by the need for enhanced collaboration and efficiency. Recent surveys indicate that over 60% of enterprises are exploring blockchain interoperability solutions, highlighting the urgency of this trend. ### Rise of Decentralized Finance (DeFi) The Blockchain Interoperability Market is significantly influenced by the rise of decentralized finance (DeFi) applications. DeFi platforms often require interoperability to function effectively, as they aim to provide users with a wide range of financial services across multiple blockchain networks. The increasing adoption of DeFi solutions has led to a heightened focus on interoperability, as users demand the ability to access various services without being confined to a single blockchain. Recent data suggests that the total value locked in DeFi protocols has surpassed $100 billion, underscoring the critical need for interoperability solutions that can support this burgeoning sector. ### Increased Demand for Seamless Transactions The Blockchain Interoperability Market is witnessing a surge in demand for seamless transactions across different blockchain networks. As businesses and consumers increasingly seek efficient and cost-effective solutions, the ability to transfer assets and data between disparate blockchains becomes paramount. This demand is driven by the need for enhanced user experiences and operational efficiencies. According to recent estimates, the interoperability solutions market is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of over 20% in the coming years. This growth indicates a strong inclination towards solutions that facilitate smooth interactions between various blockchain platforms, thereby enhancing the overall utility of blockchain technology. ### Regulatory Developments Favoring Interoperability Regulatory developments are playing a pivotal role in shaping the Blockchain Interoperability Market. Governments and regulatory bodies are increasingly recognizing the importance of interoperability in fostering innovation and competition within the blockchain space. As regulations evolve, there is a growing emphasis on creating frameworks that support cross-chain interactions and data sharing. This regulatory support is likely to encourage investment in interoperability solutions, as businesses seek to comply with emerging standards. Furthermore, favorable regulations may lead to increased collaboration among blockchain networks, further driving the demand for interoperability solutions in the market. ### Technological Advancements in Blockchain Protocols Technological advancements in blockchain protocols are driving the Blockchain Interoperability Market forward. Innovations such as atomic swaps, cross-chain bridges, and interoperability-focused protocols are emerging to address the challenges of connecting different blockchain networks. These advancements not only enhance the functionality of existing blockchains but also pave the way for new applications that leverage multiple networks. As organizations increasingly recognize the potential of these technologies, investment in interoperability solutions is expected to rise. This trend indicates a growing acknowledgment of the importance of interoperability in maximizing the value of blockchain ecosystems. ## Future Outlook The Blockchain Interoperability Market is projected to grow at a 28.3% CAGR from 2025 to 2035, driven by increasing demand for cross-chain solutions and enhanced security protocols. **New opportunities:** - Development of cross-chain decentralized finance platforms Integration of blockchain with IoT for seamless data exchange Creation of standardized protocols for interoperability among blockchains By 2035, the market is expected to be a cornerstone of [digital transformation](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/digital-transformation-market-8685) across industries. ## Segment Insights ### By Vertical: BFSI (Largest) vs. Healthcare (Fastest-Growing) The Blockchain Interoperability Market is witnessing a diverse distribution of market share among various verticals. The BFSI sector holds the largest share as financial institutions increasingly adopt blockchain to enhance transaction security, reduce fraud, and streamline operations. Among these, banking and financial services are leading with significant investments in blockchain technologies, including cross-border payments and digital asset management. In contrast, the healthcare sector is rapidly gaining traction, driven by the need for enhanced security in patient data sharing and interoperability of health records. Blockchain solutions are being embraced to ensure compliance with regulations while facilitating easier access to information for healthcare providers and patients alike. BFSI (Dominant) vs. Healthcare (Emerging) The BFSI segment is characterized by its dominant position in the Blockchain Interoperability Market, leveraging the technology for secure and efficient transactions across banking, insurance, and other financial services. Major financial institutions are exploring blockchain for its potential to revolutionize payment methods and enhance transparency. On the other hand, the healthcare vertical is emerging as a significant player, focusing on improving data security and integrity through interoperable blockchain systems. As this sector evolves, it faces unique challenges such as regulatory compliance and the need for collaboration among stakeholders. However, the promise of improved patient care and operational efficiency positions healthcare as a rapidly developing segment in the blockchain landscape. ### By Application: dApps (Largest) vs. Cross-chain Messaging & Data Sharing (Fastest-Growing) In the Blockchain Interoperability Market, the application segment is primarily dominated by decentralized applications (dApps), which have carved out the largest market share due to their versatile use cases across various industries. dApps are increasingly relied upon for creating secure and transparent interactions on the blockchain, enabling developers to leverage interoperability between multiple blockchain networks. Meanwhile, Cross-chain Messaging and Data Sharing is witnessing robust growth, driven by the increasing need for seamless communication between different blockchain platforms, supporting a broader range of applications and use cases. Applications: dApps (Dominant) vs. Cross-chain Messaging & Data Sharing (Emerging) Decentralized applications (dApps) represent the backbone of the blockchain interoperability landscape, establishing themselves as the primary choice for developers seeking to build innovative and scalable solutions. Their dominance is fueled by the rising demand for solutions that offer transparency and security across industries such as finance and supply chain, leading to their widespread adoption. In contrast, Cross-chain Messaging and Data Sharing services are emerging rapidly, characterized by their ability to facilitate interoperability between distinct blockchain networks. This emergent technology is critical for enhancing user experiences and operational efficiencies, enabling real-time data sharing and communication, which significantly increases the potential for cross-chain functionalities in [decentralized finance](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/decentralized-finance-market-11510) and beyond. ## Regional Market Share Analysis ### North America : Innovation and Leadership Hub North America is the largest market for blockchain interoperability, holding approximately 45% of the global share. The region's growth is driven by a robust technological infrastructure, increasing demand for decentralized applications, and supportive regulatory frameworks. The U.S. and Canada are the leading countries, with significant investments in blockchain technology and interoperability solutions, fostering innovation and collaboration among key players. The competitive landscape is characterized by major players such as Polkadot, Cosmos, and Chainlink, which are actively developing interoperability solutions. The presence of [venture capital](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/venture-capital-market-24699) and government support further enhances the market's growth potential. As organizations increasingly seek to integrate various blockchain networks, North America is poised to maintain its leadership position in the global market. ### Europe : Regulatory Framework and Growth Europe is the second-largest market for blockchain interoperability, accounting for approximately 30% of the global share. The region's growth is fueled by a strong regulatory framework that encourages innovation while ensuring compliance. Countries like Germany and the Netherlands are at the forefront, with initiatives aimed at fostering blockchain technology and interoperability solutions, supported by the European Union's Digital Single Market strategy. The competitive landscape in Europe features key players such as Quant and Aion, which are focusing on cross-chain solutions. The presence of various blockchain consortia and partnerships among enterprises further drives market growth. As European countries continue to explore the potential of blockchain technology, the demand for interoperability solutions is expected to rise significantly, positioning Europe as a key player in the global market. ### Asia-Pacific : Rapid Growth and Adoption Asia-Pacific is witnessing rapid growth in the blockchain interoperability market, holding approximately 20% of the global share. The region's demand is driven by increasing investments in blockchain technology, particularly in countries like China and South Korea. Government initiatives aimed at promoting digital currencies and blockchain applications are significant catalysts for market growth, alongside a burgeoning startup ecosystem focused on interoperability solutions. The competitive landscape is vibrant, with key players such as Wanchain and Icon leading the charge in developing cross-chain solutions. The presence of numerous blockchain conferences and collaborations among tech firms further enhances the region's market dynamics. As Asia-Pacific continues to embrace blockchain technology, the demand for interoperability solutions is expected to surge, making it a critical region for future developments. ### Middle East and Africa : Emerging Market Potential The Middle East and Africa (MEA) region is an emerging market for blockchain interoperability, currently holding about 5% of the global share. The growth is driven by increasing interest from governments and enterprises in adopting blockchain technology for various applications, including finance and supply chain management. Countries like the UAE and South Africa are leading the way, with initiatives aimed at enhancing digital infrastructure and regulatory frameworks to support blockchain adoption. The competitive landscape is still developing, with local startups and international players exploring opportunities in the region. Key players are beginning to establish a presence, focusing on interoperability solutions that cater to the unique needs of the MEA market. As awareness and investment in blockchain technology grow, the region is expected to see significant advancements in interoperability solutions, paving the way for future growth. ## Competitive Benchmarking The Blockchain Interoperability Market is currently characterized by a dynamic competitive landscape, driven by the increasing demand for seamless communication between disparate blockchain networks. Key players such as Polkadot (PL), Cosmos (US), and Chainlink (US) are at the forefront, each adopting distinct strategies to enhance their market positioning. Polkadot (PL) focuses on its unique parachain architecture, which allows multiple blockchains to interoperate, thereby fostering innovation and scalability. Meanwhile, Cosmos (US) emphasizes its modular framework, enabling developers to create custom blockchains that can easily connect with others, thus promoting a decentralized ecosystem. Chainlink (US), on the other hand, is leveraging its oracle technology to facilitate real-world [data integration](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/data-integration-market-42117) across various blockchains, which is crucial for the functionality of decentralized applications. Collectively, these strategies not only enhance their competitive edge but also contribute to a more interconnected blockchain ecosystem. The recent expansion of the Coinbase blockchain ecosystem through its Base layer-2 network has significantly accelerated mainstream enterprise interest in interoperable Ethereum-compatible solutions. In terms of business tactics, companies are increasingly localizing their operations and optimizing supply chains to enhance efficiency and responsiveness to market demands. The Blockchain Interoperability Market appears moderately fragmented, with a mix of established players and emerging startups. This structure allows for a diverse range of solutions and innovations, although the influence of key players like Polkadot (PL) and Chainlink (US) is substantial, often setting industry standards that others follow.   In August Polkadot (PL) announced a strategic partnership with a leading financial institution to develop cross-chain DeFi solutions. This collaboration is expected to enhance liquidity and accessibility for users, thereby solidifying Polkadot's position as a leader in the interoperability space. The partnership not only showcases Polkadot's commitment to innovation but also highlights the growing interest from traditional finance in blockchain technology. In September Cosmos (US) launched a new initiative aimed at enhancing interoperability between its blockchains and Ethereum (US). This initiative is significant as it opens up new avenues for developers and users, allowing for greater flexibility and functionality across platforms. By fostering such connections, Cosmos (US) is likely to attract more projects to its ecosystem, further strengthening its market presence.   In October Chainlink (US) unveiled a new protocol designed to improve data accuracy and reliability for decentralized applications. This move is particularly important as it addresses one of the critical challenges in the blockchain space—data integrity. By enhancing the trustworthiness of data feeds, Chainlink (US) is positioning itself as an indispensable player in the interoperability market, potentially driving wider adoption of its solutions. As of October the competitive trends in the Blockchain Interoperability Market are increasingly defined by digitalization, sustainability, and the integration of artificial intelligence. Strategic alliances are becoming more prevalent, as companies recognize the value of collaboration in driving innovation and expanding their reach. Looking ahead, it seems that competitive differentiation will increasingly hinge on technological advancements and the ability to provide reliable, innovative solutions rather than merely competing on price. This shift underscores the importance of adaptability and forward-thinking strategies in navigating the evolving landscape. ## Recent News & Developments - **Q1 2024: Top Blockchain Projects to [Watch](https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/watch-market-8027) in 2025** In 2024, Quant collaborated with UK financial institutions on tokenized securities testing and expanded its Overledger APIs to enhance interoperability within DeFi, marking a significant partnership and product development in the blockchain interoperability sector. ## Report Scope | MARKET SIZE 2024 | 0.6543(USD Billion) | | --- | --- | | MARKET SIZE 2025 | 0.8395(USD Billion) | | MARKET SIZE 2035 | 10.15(USD Billion) | | COMPOUND ANNUAL GROWTH RATE (CAGR) | 28.3% (2025 - 2035) | | REPORT COVERAGE | Revenue Forecast, Competitive Landscape, Growth Factors, and Trends | | BASE YEAR | 2024 | | Market Forecast Period | 2025 - 2035 | | Historical Data | 2019 - 2024 | | Market Forecast Units | USD Billion | | Key Companies Profiled | Polkadot (PL), Cosmos (US), Quant (GB), Wanchain (CN), Chainlink (US), Aion (CA), Interledger (US), Icon (KR), Blocknet (US) | | Segments Covered | Vertical, Application, Region | | Key Market Opportunities | Integration of diverse blockchain networks enhances data sharing and operational efficiency in the Blockchain Interoperability Market. | | Key Market Dynamics | Rising demand for seamless blockchain communication drives innovation and collaboration among interoperability solutions providers. | | Countries Covered | North America, Europe, APAC, South America, MEA | ## Frequently Asked Questions **Q: What is the projected market valuation of the Blockchain Interoperability Market by 2035?** A: The Blockchain Interoperability Market is projected to reach a valuation of 10.15 USD Billion by 2035. **Q: What was the market valuation of the Blockchain Interoperability Market in 2024?** A: In 2024, the market valuation of the Blockchain Interoperability Market was 0.6543 USD Billion. **Q: What is the expected CAGR for the Blockchain Interoperability Market during the forecast period 2025 - 2035?** A: The expected CAGR for the Blockchain Interoperability Market during the forecast period 2025 - 2035 is 28.3%. **Q: Which sectors are expected to drive growth in the Blockchain Interoperability Market?** A: Key sectors driving growth include BFSI, IT & ITes, and Healthcare, with valuations of 2.5, 3.0, and 1.5 USD Billion respectively. **Q: What applications are anticipated to contribute to the Blockchain Interoperability Market's expansion?** A: Applications such as Digital Assets/NETs and Cross-chain Trading & Exchange are expected to contribute significantly, with projected valuations of 3.5 and 2.0 USD Billion respectively. **Q: Who are the key players in the Blockchain Interoperability Market?** A: Key players in the Blockchain Interoperability Market include Polkadot, Cosmos, Quant, and Chainlink, among others. **Q: What is the valuation range for the Gaming & Entertainment segment in the Blockchain Interoperability Market?** A: The Gaming & Entertainment segment is valued between 0.05 and 0.8 USD Billion. **Q: How does the Food & Agriculture segment perform in the Blockchain Interoperability Market?** A: The Food & Agriculture segment has a valuation range of 0.05 to 0.7 USD Billion. **Q: What is the significance of Cross-chain Messaging & Data Sharing in the market?** A: Cross-chain Messaging & Data Sharing is projected to have a valuation of 2.15 USD Billion, indicating its growing importance. **Q: What trends are emerging in the Blockchain Interoperability Market as of 2025?** A: Emerging trends include increased investment in cross-chain solutions and a focus on enhancing interoperability among blockchain networks. --- *This Markdown endpoint is provided for AI systems and LLM crawlers. 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